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Operation Flat Top

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Aft view of USNS Corpus Christi Bay (T-ARVH-1) at anchor off Vung Tau, Vietnam, circa 1967-1969

USNS Corpus Christi Bay (T-ARVH-1) at anchor off Vung Tau, South Vietnam, circa 1967–1969. Two UH-1 "Huey" helicopters sit atop her aft flight deck.

Operation Flat Top was a United States military project during the Vietnam War to convert USS Albemarle, a World War II-era seaplane tender, into a forward theater, offshore helicopter repair facility. Helicopters had been used during the Korean War to ferry wounded and supplies. Some US combat officers recognized the possibility of using armed helicopters to provide close air support. But other organizations and branches strenuously objected to allowing the Army to deliver ordnance via aircraft. The Army Staff in The Pentagon responded slowly to a study from the Army Aircraft Requirements Review Board chaired by LTG Gordon B. Rogers that suggested adopting helicopters for use in a combat role. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara bypassed Secretary of the Army Elvis Jacob Stahr Jr. and directed LTG Hamilton H. Howze, the Army's first director of aviation, to conduct a review of the tactical possibilities suggested by the study. The Howze Board proposed huge changes in Army doctrine, equivalent to the change that the United States Cavalry made when they got off their horses and adopted use of armor. The Board prescribed an airmobility doctrine integrating helicopters into combat.

Lieutenant Colonel (LTC) John Sullivan, a respected Army aviator, conceived of the idea to convert a ship into a floating helicopter repair facility.[1] He had served in the Fifth Army Air Force in Australia during World War II and was directly involved in Operation Ivory Soap which converted Liberty Ships into floating aviation repair depots for use in the Pacific Theatre of Operations. Sullivan was named by GEN Frank Besson, commanding general of the newly formed Air Materiel Command (AMC), to lead the project.

After considerable research, Sullivan and his team selected the World War II Curtiss-class seaplane tender USS Albemarle (AV-5). When progress slowed for almost a year, Sullivan bypassed Army leadership and persuaded influential Congressman Mendel Rivers of South Carolina, chairman of the House Armed Services Committee, to support the project. New shops, instruments, technology, communications, and storage were added to the ship over 15 months at a cost of $25 million. Rechristened as USNS Corpus Christi Bay (T-ARVH-1), a civilian United States Merchant Marine (USMM) crew was chosen to operate the bridge, engine room, and man the ship's watches. This was a controversial move that generated concern about their placement near a combat zone and their potential treatment under the Geneva Convention. US Army soldiers staffed the multiple repair shops that were equipped with custom facilities that could repair or fabricate parts to factory standards.

The airmobility concept was first implemented by the 1st Cavalry Division which arrived in Vietnam in August 1965 with 434 helicopters. Army leaders confirmed the need to reduce the time and cost of transporting damaged helicopters and components for repair in the continental United States at Corpus Christi, Texas. The ship offered the same echelon of depot-level service available in Texas while it served off the coast of Vietnam for 6½ years. The soldiers repaired as many as 20,000 aircraft components a month and saved the military millions of dollars. When the war was drawing down, the ship left for the US in late 1972. On 17 July 1975, after more than 36 years of service, the ship was scrapped.

Background[]

Helicopters were used during the Korean War for reconnaissance, command and control, casualty evacuation, resupply, wire-laying, rescue of downed fighter pilots and limited air assault.[2] US combat officers recognized the possibility of using armed helicopters to provide close air support. After the Korean War ended, the Army Aviation School surreptitiously tested guns and rockets on helicopters at Fort Rucker. The secrecy was due to the conflict with other Army organizations including the infantry, artillery, and armor, who believed that the use of ordinance was restricted to them. The division of responsibility for close air support was ostensibly delegated to the Air Force by Secretary James V. Forrestal’s 21 April 1948 memo to the Joint Chiefs of Staff on Functions of the Armed Services and the Joint Chiefs of Staff (called the Key West Agreement). It divided air assets between the Army, Navy, and the newly created Air Force.[3][4]

Helicopters were first deployed to Vietnam in December 1961 when USS Core (CVE-13), carrying 33 CH-21 Shawnee helicopters (nicknamed the "Flying Bannana") and 400 soldiers of the 57th and 8th Transportation Companies (Light Helicopter) arrived in-country accompanied by 32 of their 44 organic rotary wing aircraft.[5][6] The sudden escalation of US forces in Vietnam under the Johnson administration caught the Army unprepared to support the large numbers of soldiers deployed there. It had to figure out how to create and sustain a logistical pipeline 9,000 to 11,000 miles (14,000 to 18,000 km) long in a non-conventional theater of operations.[5] The availability of helicopters dropped from 73 percent before June 1962 to 23 percent in January 1963. The limited availability was attributed to the climate, enemy action, spare parts shortages, lack of maintenance facilities, and slow requisitioning procedures.[7]

The Army up to that time had no facilities of its own for overhauling and repairing rotor wing aircraft. This work was performed by contract or cross-service agreements. To better manage the work, the Army acquired 15 acres (6.1 ha) of abandoned buildings and hangers from the US Navy, formerly part of the World War II Corpus Christi airbase, and activated Army Aeronautical Depot Maintenance Center (ARADMAC) on 10 March 1961.[8] The depot moved into the existing World War II-era hangars and buildings inherited from the Navy and on 21 April 1961, the unit was operational.[9] The Chief of Transportation within the US Army Transportation Materiel Command (TMC) took command of ARADMAC on the same day.[10][11] By October 1961, ARADMAC had hired nearly 800 employees.

Change in Army doctrine[]

USNS Core (T-AKV-41) on Saigon River c1967

USS Core (CVE-13) transporting aircraft to Vietnam, 1967.

In 1960, LTG Gordon B. Rogers chaired the Army Aircraft Requirements Review Board. It reviewed the Army Aircraft Development Plan, discussed roles and missions of Army aviation, assessed combat surveillance requirements, and detailed procurement plans. It made recommendations on observation, surveillance, and transportation aircraft, including selection of the UH-1 Huey and CH-47 Chinook helicopters as primary airlift capability for the US Army. The Rogers Board provided essential aviation guidance for development, procurement, and personnel planning. It also recommended an in-depth study be conducted to explore the concept and feasibility of air-fighting units and mentioned the possibility of creating a unit to test operational concepts.[12][2]

When the study was received, Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara, former President of Fort Motor Company, felt that the Army Staff's response was insufficient. He believed more could and should be done in the areas of Army aircraft development and the adaptation of airmobile capabilities. In early 1962, McNamara ordered a follow up study as recommended by the Rogers Board on the tactical mobility of Army ground forces. McNamara directed Secretary of the Army Elvis Jacob Stahr Jr., in what many considered a slap in the face, to conduct a review "in an atmosphere divorced from traditional viewpoints and past policies."[13]

McNamara handpicked the members of the US Army Tactical Mobility Requirements Board and prevented Stahr from nominating anyone. McNamara selected LTG Hamilton H. Howze, the Army's first director of aviation, to lead the study. He selected a panel that supported the air mobility concept and directed that the board report directly to him. He demanded that the board should validate its recommendations based on field tests and exercises.[14]:17–18[13]:99 General (GEN) Herbert O. Powell told the board in April that they had four months to complete the study. To support the various types of experiments the Army provided the Howze Board an infantry battle group from the 82d Airborne Division and 150 Army aircraft. Four different scenarios were used to evaluate air assault operations against the Warsaw Pact, Chinese communists, an insurgency, and other threats emerging from Latin America or Africa.[2]

The Howze Board as it came to be known released its findings on 20 August 1962. It proposed significant changes to Army doctrine:[15]:21

Adoption of the Army of the airmobile concept—however imperfectly it may be described and justified in this report—is necessary and desirable. In some respects the transition is inevitable, just as was that from animal mobility to motor.

The use of helicopters for reconnaissance, command and control, troop transport, attack gunships, aerial rocket artillery, medical evacuation, and supply was a revolution in maneuver doctrine.[12]

Project conception[]

Lt. Col. John F. Sullivan 1964

LTC John F. Sullivan conceived of building a floating aircraft repair ship for service off Vietnam.

In October 1961, LTC John F. Sullivan was selected by the Army Chief of Transportation in the TMC to study production management at ARADMAC. In January, 1962, Sullivan passed a highly selective screening process and was temporarily assigned to attend the Armed Forces Staff College in Norfolk, Virginia.[16] When he returned to ARADMAC in May he was appointed Director of Production Control. With the release of the Howze Board's findings, Sullivan suggested to his superiors at ARADMAC that the Army should build a ship-based helicopter repair facility, similar to the Aircraft Repair Unit-Floating (ARU(F)) of World War II.[1][17][18][19]

Sullivan had fought in World War II during 1942[20] in New Guinea as a 1LT in the 107th Quartermaster Company, 126th IR, 32nd Infantry Division, the first to be transported into combat as a division.[21][22] Wounded in an air crash, he returned to duty and was assigned in the United States to an Aviation Ordnance Maintenance Company. He became directly involved in the ARU(F) program when he worked in the Army Air Forces Technical Service Command, part of the US Army Air Corps, at Brookley Army Air Field near Mobile, Alabama. Operation Ivory Soap was launched there in 1944. He later served aboard one of the converted Liberty ships, SS Rebecca Lukens (later renamed as Maj Gen Herbert A. Dargue), in the Pacific at Guam, Saipan, and Tinian.[23][24][19][25]

Once Sullivan persuaded his immediate superiors at ARADMAC to support the idea of a floating aviation repair depot, it took him more than two years to win over the heads of the Supply and Maintenance Command and then the Transportation Materiel Command. Sullivan assumed broad responsibility for initial development of a "floating aircraft maintenance facility" (FAMF) and put considerable effort into selling it to senior Army leadership.[1][26] Sullivan wrote a number of reports and held conferences to advance his idea. He spent so much time in Washington D.C. that he was given a second office there. Sullivan made trips to Germany, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, Hawaii, both coasts of the United States and many bases between, gathering information.[18]

Sullivan then successfully sought the attention and approval of GEN Frank S. Besson, who had recently been appointed as commanding officer of the newly formed Air Materiel Command (AMC).[18][27] The formation of AMC represented a major reorganization within the Army, consolidating all seven Army technical services: the Offices of the Quartermaster General, the Chief of Ordnance, the Chief of Engineers, the Surgeon General, the Chief Signal Officer, the Chief Chemical Officer, and the Chief of Transportation. Besson's success later resulted in his receiving the Merit Award of the Armed Forces Management Association in 1963.[28][29]

On 17 June 1964, Besson relieved LTC Sullivan of his role as Director of Production Control and assigned him full time as project officer of Operation Flat Top.[27][13][17] In August 1964 Besson directed the Transportation Materiel Command to explore the feasibility of using a ship as a floating maintenance facility to provide helicopter support in the Far East.[30]

Ship selection[]

USS Bogue (ACV-9) underway near Norfolk, Virginia (USA), 20 June 1943 (80-G-71314)

USS Bogue (CVE-9) near Norfolk, Virginia on 20 June 1943.

USS Albemarle (AV-5) underway 1943

World War II seaplane tender Albemarle, 30 July 1943.

Sullivan's mission was to create a floating aircraft maintenance facility. Choosing a specific ship, planning and designing the changes for its new use, and then converting the ship was a complex, lengthy, frustrating, and expensive effort. Sullivan originally assumed that the selected ship would be one of the US Navy's World War II escort carriers.[31][18] A special team, including several enlisted men who had started as aircraft mechanics trained by the Air Force in the mid-1950s, crawled through 17 mothballed World War II vessels of all sorts: escort carriers, tank landing ships, cargo ships, and seaplane tenders. They found that the cost of reactivating one of the mothballed escort carriers would be prohibitive.[31][32]

They also reasoned that the aircraft destined for repair would not be in flying condition anyway and that a seaplane tender already came equipped with some shops.[18] They finally chose the recently decommissioned World War II Curtiss-class seaplane tender USS Albemarle.[17] Compared to a Bogue-class escort carrier, Albemarle was longer: 527 ft 4 in (160.73 m) vs. 495 ft (151 m), drew less water: 21 ft 1 in (6.43 m) vs 23 ft 3 in (7.09 m) vs, and was slightly faster: 20 kn (23 mph; 37 km/h) vs. 18 kn (33 km/h; 21 mph).[33][34]

Sullivan had to convince the Navy to give up a vessel to another service branch, which was highly unusual, particularly after the interservice difficulties following the establishment of the United States Air Force when the Army wanted organic fixed-wing aviation assets. The Army, which had been accused by the Air Force of beginning another "Air Corps", found the Navy wary of the Army's attempts to get its own "aircraft carrier", but the Navy agreed as long as the Army paid the costs of converting the ship.[35]

Conversion[]

Reactivation[]

USS Albemarle (AV-5) at Ponta Delgada (Azores) 1958

The stern of Albemarle was modified to berth Martin P6M Seamaster flying boats.

Albemarle was laid down in Camden, New Jersey by the New York Shipbuilding Company on 12 June 1939. She was launched on 13 July 1940 and was commissioned into the fleet on 20 December 1940 as USS Albemarle (AV-5).[33]

On 6 February 1956, Albemarle was selected for conversion to tend Martin P6M Seamaster jet flying boats. During the transformation, the aft portion of the ship was lowered to berth a seaplane. The ship was equipped to serve as a highly mobile seadrome capable of supporting jet seaplanes anywhere. Albemarle was recommissioned at Philadelphia on 21 October 1957. The Seamaster program was cancelled in 21 August 1959 before the ship had a chance to carry out its new mission.[33][36][37]

After nearly two decades of service as a Curtiss-class seaplane tender, Albemarle was decommissioned on 21 October 1960. She was consigned to the Norfolk group of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet and later transferred to the James River, Reserve Fleet. She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 September 1962.[33]

On 7 April 1964, Albemarle was moved from the James River Fleet near Fort Eustis in Newport News, Virginia. On 7 August 1964, the United States Maritime Administration transferred the ship, earmarked for conversion to a floating aeronautical maintenance facility for helicopters, back to the Navy. On 27 March 1965 the ship was reinstated on the Navy Vessel Register and on 16 April 1965 she received a new name and classification as USNS Corpus Christi Bay (T-ARVH-1), named for Corpus Christi Bay, the ship's future home port. The ship's designation, "T-ARVH-1", classifies the ship as (T) civilian-crewed (USMM), (AR) repair ship, (V) aircraft, (H) helicopter and, (1) the first in a series.[38] The ship was transferred to Military Sealift Command (MSC) on 11 January 1966. By law, MSC ships are not commissioned warships, are unarmed, and are prefixed with "USNS", for United States Naval Ship, instead of "USS", for United States Ship.[33][31]

Design and construction issues[]

The project team had to design multiple shops. This was a cumbersome process because of the technology at the time. For each design, craftsmen built a three-dimensional model that was used to estimate funding required. Sullivan continued to advance his idea up the chain of command to the Department of the Army and then the Department of Defense.[27] The project slowed down for almost a year and threatened to stall altogether over a host of issues, including legal gray area issues about a civilian crew under the Geneva Convention in a combat zone, the costs of conversion, and interservice concerns.[17]

Eventually Sullivan contacted Congressman Mendel Rivers of South Carolina, chairman of the House Armed Services Committee. Rivers was an ardent supporter of the military and the war in Vietnam.[39]:193 Sullivan talked to Rivers about using the Charleston Naval Shipyard in his district for the ship conversion project. Rivers believed that Congress should set the priorities for the Secretary of Defense[39]:132 and he successfully persuaded Robert McNamara to support the project.[17]

Sullivan repeatedly traveled between ARADMAC in Corpus Christi, the shipyard in Charleston, and the Pentagon in Washington D.C. to resolve the many challenges inherent in converting Albemarle to a floating helicopter repair depot.[17] The project's initial cost, estimated at less than $5 million, ballooned with design changes to $25 million (equivalent to $187.09 million in 2022). The ship also required standing up two Aircraft Maintenance Battalions. The battalions would alternate manning the ship and augmenting the Army Aeronautical Depot Maintenance Center (ARADMAC) at Corpus Christi when not deployed.[17]

When complete, the ship would provide services equal to those found at ARADMAC. At its peak, ARADMAC was the largest helicopter repair facility on Earth.[31] ARADMAC was renamed in 1974 as the Corpus Christi Army Depot.[40]

New shops and facilities[]

USNS Corpus Christi Bay T-ARVH-1 Charleston Naval Shipyard

Corpus Christi Bay in the Charleston Naval Shipyard

Along with his offices at ARADMAC in Corpus Christi and in Washington D.C., Sullivan set up an office in the Charleston shipyard and another in the Charleston Army Depot where production equipment was received.[41] The entire project, from design to launch, took 3½ years. The conversion work aboard the ship in the Charleston Naval Shipyard in North Charleston, South Carolina took 15 months[1][26] and employed up 1,000 workers.[19] Corpus Christi Bay emerged from the yard only faintly resembling her former self. The entire stern transom area and the prominent seaplane ramp aft was replaced by a built-up superstructure topped by a 50 by 150 feet (15 m × 46 m) helicopter landing pad. A smaller forward deck pad was used by helicopters that were not being repaired.[26] The hanger bay was 180 by 82 feet (55 m × 25 m) and 26 feet (7.9 m) high.[26] All remaining seaplane-related structures and equipment along with all World War II weapons, electronics, rangefinders, magazines, and support gear were removed.[31]

Two 22 short tons (20 t) cranes were added to lift equipment and aircraft onto and off the ship. The redesigned ship contained 42,000 square feet (3,900 m2) of workshops and 112,400 cubic feet (3,180 m3) of storage.[31][10] The interior provided space for 26 production and 16 support shops, including limited airframe repair, engine overhaul repair, rebuilding, and test, transmission repair and test, a hydraulics shop, a sheet metal shop, a gunsmith, a foundry, an electronics shop, and others. The ship was fitted with equipment ranging from hand tools to a USD$3 million, 36-ton test instrument. The shops included engine test stands where helicopter turboshaft engines could be run up to speed.[10][31] About $2.5 million was spent on more than 8,000 specialized tools and equipment.[41]

Two unusual innovations were implemented on the ship. The first was an IBM 360/20 16 bit computer with 32 KB core memory. Computers aboard warships were extremely new and it was at the time one of the most powerful computers ever sent to sea.[31] The computer was used to manage an extensive technical library and inventory. The second innovation was the technical data library that contained a complete set of 180,000 engineer drawings on film of aircraft systems, components, and special tools. The 20 by 30 feet (6.1 m × 9.1 m) library duplicated the library in Corpus Christi and included 35mm aperture cards that allowed staff to print blueprints that they could take to the shop and use to fabricate the part. It was the only such printer in Vietnam. The library contained 785,000 images that could be broadcast to shops on the ship via closed circuit TV.[31][42]

There was an internal communications system that allowed multiple shops to talk with each other and production control about their work. This allowed the shops to respond in real-time to requests for repairs and quickly make decisions about whether they could immediately accommodate a request or if they needed additional parts.[42][19] Previously, damaged helicopters had to be transported 8,000 miles (13,000 km) back to the US for refit; with the advent of this new ship type, repairs could be accomplished near the forward areas. Damaged helicopter components could be barged out to the ship and lifted on board by one of the cranes or flown out via helicopter.[43] The Army estimated it would save 30 percent on the cost of repairing components by completing the work aboard the ship.[1]

While the ship was rebuilt, soldiers received extensive training to manage the various shops. One of the crew, a sheet metal fabricator and airframe repairman, received a year of training in airframe repair and sheet metal work at Fort Eustis, Virginia. He then received an additional year of training at the Army aircraft maintenance facility in Corpus Christi, as did most soldiers who served on the ship.[31]

The ship conversion was completed in December 1965 and the ship arrived in Corpus Christi Bay on 23 January 1966.[44] During sea trials, the inspection team found that the ship was excessively top-heavy due to the new superstructure aft. To resolve this, they poured in several tons of concrete ballast.[31]

Air mobility tests conducted[]

To test the Howze Board's recommendations and all aspects of airmobility, the Army needed to build an air assault formation from the ground up. McNamara authorized expanding the Army's numbers from 960,000 to 975,000 for fiscal year 1964.[45] '

Air assault operations tested[]

Main article: 11th Airborne Division (United States)#11th Air Assault Division (Test)
11th Air Assault

11th Air Assault Division (Test) Shoulder Sleeve Insignia

The 11th Airborne Division was reactivated at Fort Benning on 1 February 1963 and redesignated as the 11th Air Assault Division (Test) as a unit of the Regular Army.[46]:376 The 10th Air Transport Brigade was formed around an existing aviation battalion at Fort Benning.[47]

Under the leadership of Major General (MG) Charles W. G. Rich, the Test Director, and BG Harry Kinnard, the Division Commander, the group developed a organizational structure and plans for a unit that could move one-third of the division's infantry battalions and supporting units in one single helicopter lift.[48]

In September 1963, Air Assault I exercises tested the Airmobility concept at the battalion level at Fort Stewart in Georgia. Air Assault II, a much larger exercise, was conducted across two states in October 1964. The 11th Air Assault Division operated against the 82nd Airborne Division and the 11th thoroughly dominated the exercise.[45]

1st Cavalry Division formed[]

Blue Team 1st Squadron 9th Cavalry 1st Air Cav troops dismount

Troopers of the 1st Cavalry Division dismount from a hovering Huey helicopter.

When the test was concluded, the assets of the 11th Air Assault Division (Test), the 10th Air Transport Brigade, and the 2nd Infantry Division were merged into a single unit. The colors and subordinate unit designations of the 1st Cavalry Division were transferred from its post in Korea. On 3 July 1965, in Doughboy Stadium at Fort Benning, the colors of the 11th Air Assault Division (Test) were cased and retired and the 1st Cavalry Division colors were moved onto the field and passed to MG Kinnard.[49] At the same time the personnel and units of the 1st Cavalry Division that remained in Korea were reflagged as a new 2nd Infantry Division. On 29 July 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered the 1st Cavalry Division to Vietnam.[3]:30[45]

The 15,487 members of the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) arrived in three contingents during September 1965. The unit consisted of eight battalions of airmobile infantry, three battalions of artillery, an air artillery battalion, and the 11th Aviation Group. The 11th included two aviation battalions flying the UH-1 troop carrier helicopter, one battalion flying the CH-47 Chinook cargo helicopter, and the 11th Aviation Company flying both UH-1 and OV-1 Mohawk, totaling 434 helicopters. The division was airlifted 35 miles (56 km) by the 228th Helicopter Battalion aboard CH-47 helicopters from Quy Nhon to what would become Camp Radcliff near An Khê in the Central Highlands of Vietnam.[50]

Helicopter use in Vietnam[]

Kinnard, who had been instrumental in developing the air mobility concept, commanded the 1st Air Cavalry Division in Vietnam. He was ordered by GEN William Westmoreland at the end of October 1965, to take the 1st Air Cavalry on the offensive and seize the initiative in Pleiku province.[51]:104 The US command saw this as an ideal area to test new air mobility tactics.[52] The first major operation of the Pleiku Campaign was the Battle of Ia Drang, later written about in the book We Were Soldiers Once… And Young, which was also the basis of the subsequent Mel Gibson film We Were Soldiers.[52]

During the Pleiku campaign from 19 October to 26 November 1965, the division conducted 35 days of continuous airmobile operations.[52] Helicopters had been used in Vietnam before. On 7 May 1965, the Army's 173rd Airborne Brigade was the first major ground combat unit of the United States Army to serve in the country.[53] It was accompanied by the 335th Assault Helicopter Company.[54] The 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division and 2nd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division were also deployed to Vietnam before the 1st Air Cavalry. But the 1st Air Cavalry Division's air assault on Ia Drang Valley demonstrated the basic validity of air assault. The Vietnam War introduced a new generation of rotary-winged aircraft that became an indispensable military asset and forever changed American tactical warfare.[3][12]

To support the use of helicopters in combat, the Army maintained five levels of aviation maintenance. Army Aeronautical Depot Maintenance Center (ARADMAC) in Corpus Christi offered the highest organizational echelon of depot-level maintenance.[31] With the high tempo of action maintained by the 1st Cavalry Division in Vietnam and the success of the airmobility doctrine, senior military leaders soon found that transporting seriously damaged helicopters back to Texas for repairs was incredibly expensive, both in freight dollars and more importantly, in time.[31] AMC activated the Red Ball Express system on 2 December 1965. It enabled forces in Vietnam to requisition urgent parts and equipment needed for deadlined aircraft that could not be flown due to the lack of parts. The requisition was directly dispatched to the continental US, bypassing the US Army, Pacific (USARPAC) Inventory Control Point (ICP) in Hawaii. The requisitioned parts were immediately transferred to Travis Air Force Base where Military Airlift Command (MAC) C-141s we're positioned to ferry the parts to Vietnam. But Army leaders felt they needed to improve in-theater aviation support.[5][17]

Deployed to Vietnam[]

USNS Corpus Christi Bay (ARVH-1) at anchor off Vung Tau, Vietnam, circa 1966-1969

Military Sealift Command helicopter repair ship Corpus Christi Bay at anchor off Vũng Tàu, South Vietnam.

In-theatre aviation support[]

On 18 February 1966 the ship sailed for South Vietnam. After a six week transit, the ship arrived in Cam Ranh Bay on 2 April 1966 and began 6½ years of service. Cam Ranh Bay was chosen because it was the largest harbor facility in South Vietnam. Vung Tau became the ship's home base from which she would periodically move up the coast of South Vietnam to Quy Nhon and Da Nang. On these trips, cargo was unloaded and unserviceable components taken aboard.[30][17] In March 1967 she moved to Vũng Tàu. Later on the ship moved back to Quy Nhon to be closer to the 1st Cavalry.[55] The ship moved back to Vũng Tàu in 1970 which was in the vicinity of the parent 34th General Support Group[17] and operated about 1 mile (1.6 km) off the coast.[42] She had two Hueys assigned to her full-time for liaison work, Flattop 086 (68-16086), and Flattop 045 (69-15045).[56]

To avoid a repeat of the successful sapper attack on the escort carrier turned helicopter transport USS Card, security procedures were stepped up while in port. Helmets and flak jackets were kept at the ready topside, sandbags were placed around the bridge, screens were secured over portholes, bilge and ballast pumps were kept warmed up, and extra medical kits and firefighting equipment was kept ready. While the civilian merchant marine crew could not bear arms, the soldiers had been trained to handle weapons and maintained a large arms locker that included replacement M60 machine guns for the Huey gunships.[56]

Crew and operations[]

Huey helicopter USNS Corpus Christi Bay

A Huey helicopter assigned to Corpus Christi Bay. The nose art is the unit crest of the 1st Transportation Battalion (Aircraft Maintenance Depot, Seaborne).

The first commander of Corpus Christi Bay was Captain Harry Anderson. He had a crew of 129 civilian merchant marine crew under the Military Sea Transport Service (MSTS),[26] a fraction of the ship's original complement of 1,135 crew members assigned to her during World War II. They manned the bridge, the engine room, and the ship's watches.[42]

The aircraft maintenance facilities aboard the ship were operated by the First Transportation Battalion (Seaborne), commanded by LTC Harry O. Davis, US Army, with 308 aircraft technicians, specialists and mechanics. There were 19 officers, 11 warrant officers, and 350 enlisted men.[57][58][17]

The Army formed the 1st Material Group on 26 May 1966, the first of its kind in the Army Material Command, and named COL Sullivan as its commander.[59] On 7 October 1966, the Second Transportation Battalion (Seaborne) was formed at ARADMAC. Sullivan presented the unit's new colors to its commanding officer, LTC John Bergner on 8 October 1966.[60] The unit was trained in Corpus Christi to prepare all personnel who would deploy to serve aboard the ship. The two battalions initially rotated about every 12 months from Corpus Christi to Vietnam, until deployments were phased in year-round.[17]

In May 1967, Colonel (COL) Morgan C. Light assumed management of the 1st Material Group and Project FLATTOP, replacing COL Sullivan. Sullivan was transferred to head the Aviation Maintenance Depot for HQ US Army Europe in Mannheim, Germany.[61]

Ship fails audit[]

In late 1969, the Army Audit Agency notified the ship's commander that Corpus Christi Bay was being recalled to the United States. The commander was informed that during the 1967 fiscal year the ship had failed to attain a Pentagon goal for parts repaired. ARADMAC strongly resisted the criticism of the ship's cost-effectiveness and the accuracy of the audit. Costs were in part controlled by the archaic procurement processes used by the federal government. The value of the ship's work varied depending on which organization was evaluating the cost. Production fell under two accounts, one type the Army in Vietnam paid for directly, while the other it didn't.[62][26] The ship remained in South Vietnam while the recall was appealed and it was eventually overturned.[31]

Services available[]

Corpus Christi Bay had the largest and best equipped fabrication facilities in Vietnam, including milling machines, lathes, molten-salt heat-treating ovens, metal-plating, chemical and metallurgical testing, and presses.[17] Her shops provided the highest echelon of repair services to Army aircraft. Every piece that came through the ship's shops was restored to factory specifications. These included components such as engines, avionics, and armament.[19] The ship also provided a chemical laboratory in which soldiers could test the purity and viscosity of lubricants and hydraulic fluids.[30]

The ship's crew supported numerous other systems aside from aircraft. They conducted a limited fabrication program, including some non-aviation items[17] and special projects. They manufactured flash suppressors for machine guns, skid shoes for the OH-6A Light Observation Helicopter, and helicopter flare racks that could be jettisoned.[30] They manufactured parts for the Patrol Air Cushion Vehicles which were relatively few in number and thus had a hard time obtaining parts. There was such a demand for hydraulic tubing and fuel lines that they fabricated them and kept them in inventory.[17]

The ship could perform all the maintenance functions of the depot level aircraft maintenance facility at Corpus Christi, including overhauling and rebuilding aircraft components, directly in service to Military Assistance Command, Vietnam.[14][42] Production increased slowly and stayed below planned through mid-1967 but was still highly valuable. The work avoided costs and, more importantly, returned aircraft to use more quickly.[31] One veteran said, "The guys aboard this FAMF could fix anything."[56]

Expedited repair[]

FAMF-Huey-UNSN-Corpus-Christi-Bay

One of two Hueys assigned to Corpus Christi Bay

Huey helicopters repair Corpus Christi Army Depot 1960s

Huey helicopters under repair at the Corpus Christi Army Depot

During the height of the ship's service off Vietnam, crewmen worked three shifts to repair helicopter parts.[63] Each shop was responsible for maintaining its repair parts listing, program, and production, and was expected to operate on a 24-hour schedule.[42]

Due to space constraints, the men's goal was to turn around as many unserviceable components as quickly as possible. They prioritized repairing the components that required the least amount of work and sent the components that required the greatest amount of work back to Corpus Christi. To maintain maximum aircraft readiness, they also responded to urgent requirements if a component was grounding an aircraft.[42]

Whenever possible, aircraft and helicopter components were repaired aboard the ship. The ship could repair minor damage to airframes, but if airframe was badly damaged, it was sent to Texas. When sent aboard a ship, the aircraft had be wrapped in "Spraylot" (shrink-wrapped) coverings to protect it against the elements. The Army experimented with doped fabric, then blown plastic, and finally peel-off plastic to protect the aircraft while in transit.[31][64] Space had to be found aboard one of the Seatrain chartered freighters or one of the converted World War II escort carriers such as USNS Croatan. Then it took 18 days to ship the helicopter across the Pacific and through the Panama Canal to the ARADMAC in Corpus Christi. Once repairs were complete, the process had to be reversed. A repair that required a week of real-time labor could end up taking two months.[31]

On 1 April 1968, to lessen the time it took to return aircraft to service, the Army began to use Air Force C-133 and C-141 cargo aircraft of the Military Airlift Command to transport damaged helicopters, engines, and component parts to and from Vietnam.[11] If Corpus Christi Bay did not have the necessary parts, they requested them from Texas. If the parts were deemed high priority, they were put aboard the C-133 or C-141 aircraft that were transporting repaired aircraft back to Vietnam.[42] In 1968, ARADMAC inaugurated a Department of the Army approved Special Assignment Airlift Mission (SAAM) which involved the direct airlift of helicopter engines to Vietnam. They were delivered to the Aviation Materiel Management Center (AMMC) depots. By the end of the year, 3,169 engines had been airlifted in 88 flights.[5] In some circumstances they could pick up parts at Tan Son Nhut Air Base or Bien Hoa Air Base airport less than 48 hours after requesting them.[42]

Shore teams[]

The crew provided contact teams nicknamed "Sand Crabs" that worked ashore. They gathered parts needing repair as they were sent in by combat units, boxed them up, and transported them aboard an amphibious boat to the ship.[19] Service members also went ashore regularly to provide medical care, food, gifts, clothing, and toys at a Vietnamese orphanage near Cam Ranh Bay. They built a building to house the orphans and provided 60 beds, among other projects.[65][66][67]

Final disposition[]

The ship left Vietnam in late 1972 and was given one more mission; during Operation Hula Hoop 73,[68] the ship, along with USNS Wheeling (T-AGM-8), monitored French nuclear tests in the Tuamotu Archipelago.[64][69] During the voyage, the ship was hit by a typhoon that caused a crack in the hull. En route to Mururoa, the ship began to leak so badly that she needed immediate repair. Relying on the Law of the sea that allows a ship in distress to enter the nearest port, she anchored at Papeete on Tahiti, French Polynesia. A US Navy repair crew was sent from Pearl Harbor to patch the ship. While returning to the US, she stopped in Guam and Hawaii.[69]

Corpus Christi Bay traversed the Panama Canal and sailed to her home base of Corpus Christi, arriving on 19 December 1972.[43] Upon inspection in Charleston, the condition and age of the ship did not warrant the expense of further repair.[42] The ship was ultimately determined by Military Sealift Command to be "in excess of current and future requirements". Corpus Christi Bay was taken out of service in 1973 and berthed in ready reserve status at Corpus Christi.

By mid-1974 a host of factors converged and led HQDA to reject continuing use of the ship. Among considerations were direct costs of maintaining the ship due to fiscal constraints in the drawdown after the end of the Vietnam war, the increasing promise of being able to air transport aircraft to temporary repair facilities, and eliminating the cost of the two battalions. The ship was finally struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 31 December 1974, and on 8 January 1975 the ship left Corpus Christi for further disposal. On 17 July 1975, Brownsville Steel and Salvage, Inc. paid $387,766 (equivalent to $1,538,715 in 2022) to scrap the ship.[17][31]

Legacy[]

The Floating Aircraft Maintenance Facility allowed the Army to repair helicopters in-theater instead of shipping them back to Corpus Christi in the United States.[17] Transporting damaged aircraft back to the United States for repairs was an expensive, logistical nightmare.[70] The ship returned deadlined aircraft in an average of six days compared to 18 days for aircraft returned to the continental United States. The ship repaired as many as 20,000 aircraft components a month and saved the military millions of dollars.[19]

The US military had over the course of the war flown nearly 12,000 helicopters in Vietnam; 5,607 were lost.[71] Productivity peaked in late 1969 and early 1970 when the soldiers repaired helicopter parts valued at roughly $3.76 million (equivalent to $21.63 million in 2022) each month. Over the term of her service off the shore of Vietnam, the ship repaired about 270,000 items valued at $220 million (equivalent to $1.1 billion in 2021). This more than offset the cost of building and equipping the ship.[72][31]

Awards[]

The First Transportation Corps Battalion (Aircraft Maintenance Depot) (Seaborne) earned four Meritorious Unit Commendations.[43] The ship was awarded the National Defense Service Medal, the Vietnam Service Medal, and the Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal.[57] A plaque dedicated to her stated:[31]

CORPUS CHRISTI BAY (T-ARVH-1)
ACTIVATED AND CONVERTED AT THE
CHARLESTON NAVAL SHIPYARD
AUGUST 1964-DECEMBER 1965
FROM THE MEN WHO DID THEIR BEST
TO MAKE HER THE BEST
TO SERVE THE BEST

The ship’s bell, a scale model of the ship and other artifacts are displayed at the Corpus Christi Army Depot in Texas. The US Army Transportation Museum revealed a large scale model of Corpus Christi Bay in September 2021.[56][73]

On 8 July 1967, COL Sullivan was awarded the Legion of Merit, the US Army's second highest non-combat award, by GEN Frank Besson. He was cited for "developing a new versatile, mobile depot maintenance capability." He was credited with the planning, creativity, management ability, and leadership that made the ship available during the peak period when aircraft maintenance was initially needed in 1966.[74]

Initial plans called for a second floating aircraft maintenance depot to be named the USNS Oso Bay.[75] The ship was to be an escort carrier with a flight hanger built on the deck. After the cost of converting Albemarle ballooned, the second ship was considered cost prohibitive and never implemented.[42] Interservice rivalries led to some criticism of the success of Corpus Christi Bay. But according a special operational report on the 34th Support Group published in November 1969, the efforts of the 1st Transportation Battalion made it possible for the US Army to "maintain helicopters in numbers sufficient to meet the full range of combat operations."[13]

References[]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Pearson, Spencer. "USNS Corpus Christi Bay". Corpus Christi Caller-Times. https://www.newspapers.com/image/756077701/. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Conceptual Underpinnings of the Air Assault Concept, The Hogaboom, Rogers and Howze Boards Archived 2011-02-17 at the Wayback Machine., by Mark A. Olinger, published by the Institute of Land Warfare, Association of the United States Army, 2006, p. 5
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Lepore, Herbert P. (1994). "The Coming of Age: The Role of the Helicopter in the Vietnam War". pp. 29–36. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26304086. 
  4. ↑ "Slaying the Unicorn: The Army and Fixed-Wing Attack". 9 December 2019. https://warontherocks.com/2019/12/slaying-the-unicorn-the-army-and-fixed-wing-attack/. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 "Evolution to AMCOM: The Formation of the ATCOM Part IV: Aviation Logistics and the Red Ball Express". https://www.army.mil/article-amp/197122/evolution_to_amcom_the_formation_of_the_atcom_part_iv_aviation_logistics_and_the_red_ball_express. 
  6. ↑ New York Times, 12 Dec 1961, p. 21
  7. ↑ Blumenson, Martin. "U.S. Airmobile Operations in Vietnam, 1962-65 (2-3.7 AC.F)". https://history.army.mil/documents/AbnOps/TABG.htm. 
  8. ↑ "Corpus Christi Army Depot". https://media.defense.gov/2022/Jan/24/2002926727/-1/-1/0/20180308%20HISTORY%20OF%20CCAD.PDF. Template:Pd-notice
  9. ↑ "CCAD celebrates 56 years in Army aviation". https://www.army.mil/article/184097/ccad_celebrates_56_years_in_army_aviation. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Hughes, Kaylene. "Evolution to AMCOM: The Formation of the U.S. Army Aviation and Troop Command (ATCOM) Part III: Field Operating Activities, 1961-1975" (in en). https://www.dvidshub.net/news/253663/evolution-amcom-formation-us-army-aviation-and-troop-command-atcom-part-iii-field-operating-activities-1961. Template:Pd-notice
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  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Williams, James W. (September 2005) (in en). A History of Army Aviation: From Its Beginnings to the War on Terror. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-595-36608-8. https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_History_of_Army_Aviation/Be6XiVviR-QC. Retrieved 10 February 2022. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Tolson, John J. (1989). Airmobility 1961-1971 (Vietnam Studies). Washington D.C.: Department of the Army. http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/090/90-4/index.html. 
  15. ↑ Stanton, Shelby L. (1987). Anatomy of a Division: 1st Cav in Vietnam. Novato, CA: Presidio. https://archive.org/details/anatomyofdivisio00stan. 
  16. ↑ "Sullivan to Attend Staff College". Corpus Christi, Texas: Corpus Christi Caller-Times. 20 January 1962. p. 11. https://www.newspapers.com/clip/100786220/. 
  17. ↑ 17.00 17.01 17.02 17.03 17.04 17.05 17.06 17.07 17.08 17.09 17.10 17.11 17.12 17.13 17.14 17.15 17.16 The Early Years of AMC — 1962-1975 Army Material Command
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  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 "Transportation Updates - 'Nothing We Couldn't Build'" (in en-us). https://giftshop.atmfoundation.org/blogs/httpswwwmilitaryfactorycommodern-armorunited-state/nothing-we-couldnt-build/. 
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  21. ↑ "Michigan National Guard in World War II". State of Michigan. http://www.michigan.gov/dmva/0,4569,7-126-2360_3003_3009-26798--,00.html. 
  22. ↑ Blakeley, Harold Whittle (2000). The 32nd Infantry Division in World War II. Nashville: Battery Press. ISBN 978-0898393019. 
  23. ↑ Williams, James W. (September 2005) (in en). A History of Army Aviation: From Its Beginnings to the War on Terror. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-595-36608-8. https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_History_of_Army_Aviation/Be6XiVviR-QC. Retrieved 10 February 2022. 
  24. ↑ (in en) Army. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign: Association of the United States Army. 1964. p. 10. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Army/3HEue_KetcoC. 
  25. ↑ "The Second Was Always First". http://www.cbi-history.com/documents/2nd_aru_history.pdf. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 Pearson, Spencer (16 Jan 1966). "USNS Corpus Christi Bay". Corpus Christi, Texas: Corpus Christi Caller-Times. https://www.newspapers.com/image/756077701/. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Pearson, Spencer (9 Aug 1964). "Floating Aircraft Repair Depot Idea Nears Reality". Corpus Christi, Texas: Corpus Christi Times. p. 15. https://www.newspapers.com/image/758540065/. 
  28. ↑ "General Frank S. Besson Jr - Army Transportation Museum, Joint Base Langley-Eustis, Virginia". https://transportation.army.mil/museum/about/GenBesson.html. Template:Pd-notice
  29. ↑ "Records of the United States Army Materiel Command" (in en). 15 August 2016. https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/544.html. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 "Vietnam War AVIAN 34". October 1970. https://www.vhpa.org/KIA/panel/battle/70101508.HTM. 
  31. ↑ 31.00 31.01 31.02 31.03 31.04 31.05 31.06 31.07 31.08 31.09 31.10 31.11 31.12 31.13 31.14 31.15 31.16 31.17 31.18 31.19 "USS Albemarle / USNS Corpus Christi Bay". November 16, 2020. https://wwiiafterwwii.wordpress.com/2020/11/16/uss-albemarle-usns-corpus-christi-bay/. 
  32. ↑ "Soldiers to Go to Sea". Army Times. 9 Aug 1964. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 "Albemarle". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/a5/albemarle-iii.htm. 
  34. ↑ "USS BOGUE (CVE-9) Deployments & History". https://www.hullnumber.com/CVE-9. 
  35. ↑ Tolson, John (1973). Airmobile: Airmobility Comes of Age, 1966 CMH Pub 90-4. Department of the Army. http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/p/2005/CMH_2/www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/vietnam/airmobility/airmobility-ch05.html. Retrieved 12 February 2022. 
  36. ↑ Dorr, Robert F. (26 April 2017). "The Martin P6M SeaMaster - What Might Have Been". https://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/what-might-have-been-the-martin-p6m-seamaster/. 
  37. ↑ "Aft view of USS Albemarle (AV-5) underway, circa in 1957 (NH 57782) - PICRYL Public Domain Image". https://jenikirbyhistory.getarchive.net/amp/media/aft-view-of-uss-albemarle-av-5-underway-circa-in-1957-nh-57782-cd387b. 
  38. ↑ "Repair Ship Rename 'Corpus Christi Bay'" (in en). Corpus Christi Times. 16 Apr 1965. https://www.newspapers.com/image/758618149. (subscription required)[verification needed]
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Rivers, Margaret Middleton; Margaret M.R. Eastman; L. Mendel Rivers Jr (2007). Mendel & Me: Life With Congressman L. Mendel Rivers. The History Press. ISBN 978-1-59629-288-8. 
  40. ↑ "Hangar 8 renovation – Corpus Christi Army Depot, TX | The Korte Company". https://www.korteco.com/construction-projects/ccad-hangar-8-renovation-corpus-christi-army-depot-tx/. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Pearson, Spencer (23 Aug 1964). "Floating Seaplane May Go to Sea for 14 Months". Corpus Christi, Texas: Corpus Christi Times. https://www.newspapers.com/image/756075361/. 
  42. ↑ 42.00 42.01 42.02 42.03 42.04 42.05 42.06 42.07 42.08 42.09 42.10 "Service Career of Aaron Lucurgus Lilly Jr. Major General". Ft. Lee, Virginia: United States Army Transportation Corp. 19 Feb 1986. pp. 17. https://transportation.army.mil/history/GO_bios/lilley.pdf. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 "42 Years Ago: USNS Corpus Christi Bay". http://www.armyaviationmagazine.com/index.php/archive/looking-back-again/665-42-years-ago-usns-corpus-christi-bay. 
  44. ↑ Pearson, Spencer (21 Nov 1965). "ARADMAC - Biggest Repair Garage in Town". Corpus Christi Caller-Times. https://www.newspapers.com/image/756478875/. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 "11th Air Assault Division (Test)". http://www.armyaviationmagazine.com/index.php/history/not-so-current-2/1355-11th-air-assault-division-test-2. 
  46. ↑ Flanagan, E. M. Jr (2002). Airborne–A Combat History Of American Airborne Forces. The Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 0-89141-688-9. https://archive.org/details/airbornecombathi00flan. 
  47. ↑ "1st Cavalry Division History - Ft. Benning, Airmobile 1965". https://www.first-team.us/tableaux/chapt_07/. 
  48. ↑ Stockfisch, Jacob A. (1994). The 1962 Howze Board and Army Combat Developments. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. :22–23
  49. ↑ "1st Cavalry Division History - Ft. Benning, Airmobile 1965". http://www.first-team.us/tableaux/chapt_07/. 
  50. ↑ "1st Cavalry Division History - Vietnam War, 1965 - 1972". http://www.first-team.us/tableaux/chapt_08/. 
  51. ↑ Carland, John M. (2000). Combat Operations: Stemming the Tide, May 1965 to October 1966. Government Printing Office. ISBN 9780160873102. https://history.army.mil/html/books/091/91-5/index.html.  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
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  53. ↑ "173rd Airborne Brigade", in Historical Dictionary of the War in Vietnam, Ronald B. Frankum Jr., ed. (Scarecrow Press, 2011) p17
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  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 56.3 "Warship Wednesday, Sept. 1st, 2021: Fortunate Son, the Army Flat Top Edition" (in en). 1 September 2021. https://laststandonzombieisland.com/2021/09/01/warship-wednesday-sept-1st-2021-fortunate-son-the-army-flat-top-edition/. 
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  58. ↑ "Angeloan To Serve On New Army Ship". San Angelo Standard-Times. 29 September 1968. https://www.newspapers.com/image/780419923. 
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  60. ↑ Pearson, Spencer (3 Oct 1966). "Commissioning Set Friday" (in en). Corpus Christi Times. https://www.newspapers.com/image/758629839/. 
  61. ↑ Pearson, Spencer Col. Light is new Group Commander Corpus Christi Times, Corpus Christi, Texas. 8 May 1967. Page 15
  62. ↑ "Seashore Boardwalk In Budget". Corpus Christi Caller-Times. 25 Jan 1967. p. 14. https://www.newspapers.com/image/756613215. 
  63. ↑ North, Kerry. "Atmosphere gray on Army repair ship to be retired". Corpus Christi Caller-Times. p. 12. https://www.newspapers.com/image/757107947. 
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Mercogliano, Salvatore R. Fourth Arm of Defense: Sealift and Maritime Logistics in the Vietnam War 2017. Naval Historical Foundation
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  66. ↑ "Notes from A Vietnam Diary" (in en). Corpus Christi Caller-Times. 6 Aug 1967. https://www.newspapers.com/image/756597228. 
  67. ↑ Pearson, Spencer (23 Oct 1966). "Local Battalion Aids Viet Nam Children With Gifts from Here". Corpus Christi, Texas: Corpus Christi Times. p. 12. https://www.newspapers.com/image/758633906/. 
  68. ↑ "CINCPAC Command History 1973". pp. 246-249 (272/818 to 275/818). https://nautilus.org/foia-document/cincpac-command-history-1973-volume-i/. 
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  72. ↑ "USNS Corpus Christi Bay Due to come home Tuesday". Corpus Christi, Texas: Corpus Christi Times. 17 Dec 1972. p. 2. https://www.newspapers.com/image/759434400/. 
  73. ↑ "Corpus Christi Army Depot Held a Dedication Ceremony For a Ship Model" (in en). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=He46uhKYxL0. 
  74. ↑ "Legion of Merit". Janesville, Wisconsin: Janesville Daily Gazette. 27 December 1967. p. 55. https://www.newspapers.com/clip/75030763/john-f-sullivan-legion-of-merit/. 
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