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Occupation of Araucanía

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The Occupation of Araucanía or Pacification of Araucania (1861–1883) was a series of military campaigns, agreements and penetrations by the Chilean army and settlers into Mapuche territory which led to the incorporation of Araucanía into Chilean national territory. Pacification of Araucanía was the expression used by the Chilean authorities for this process.

Background[]

File:Grupos Mapuches.JPG

Mapuche groups in Araucanía around 1850.

Beginning in the second half of the 18th century Mapuche-Spanish and later Mapuche-Chilean trade increased and hostilities decreased.[1] Mapuches obtained goods from Chile and some dressed in "Spanish" clothing.[2] Despite close contacts Chileans and Mapuches were socially, politically and economically distinct.[2] During Chile's first fifty years of independence (1810-1860) the governments relation to the Araucanía territory was not a priority and the Chilean government prioritized the development of Central Chile over its relations with indigenous groups.[3][4] It was not until the 1860s that a series of events made the Chilean state invade Araucanía.[3]

Expansion of Chilean agriculture[]

See also: Chilean wheat cycle

The Chilean agriculture sector was badly affected by the Chilean War of Independence.[5] Following the Chilean silver rush that begun in 1832 agriculture begun to expand in the Norte Chico.[5] Next major expansion of agricultural activity occurred from 1848 onwards thanks to wheat demand during the colonization of Australia and the California Gold Rush.[5] Despite the vanishing of the Californian and Australian markets wheat cultivation remained highly profitable.[5] In the 1850s with the German colonization of Valdivia, Osorno and Llanquihue and the onset of sheep farming in the Chilean territory at the Strait of Magellan, Araucanía remained the sole place for agriculture to expand.[6]

Mapuche lands around south of Bío-Bío River begun to be bought by non-Mapuches already in the late 18th century and by 1860 land between Bío-Bío and Malleco River was mostly under control of Chileans.[6][7] The Chilean wheat boom increased the pressure to acquire lands in Araucanía by Chileans and leading to numerous scams and frauds against Mapuches.[8] A limited number of speculators obtained control over vast lands trough frauds and mantained control over their assets trought the use of arms.[9]

While Chilean economy had a blooming agriculture sector a large part of the Mapuche economy revolved around livestock operations in one of the largest territories any indigenous group had ever possessed in South America.[1]

Shipwreck of the El Joven Daniel[]

In 1849 a ship travelling between Valdivia and Valparaíso, El Joven Daniel, wrecked at the coast between the mouths of Imperial and Toltén River.[10] The shipwreck was looted by a local Mapuche tribe and some of the survivors were killed.[10] These events were first known in Valdivia and later in Santiago where they fueled a strong anti-Mapuche sentiment and reaffirmed views that the Mapuches were brutal barbarians.[10][11] The opposition to president Manuel Bulnes called for a punitive expedition and Mapuches prepared for a confrontation with the Chilean Army.[10] Bulnes did however dismiss the calls for a punitive expedition in the view of its irrelevance to the eventual conquest of Araucanía.[10]

1851 revolution and 1859 uprising[]

Further information: 1851 Chilean Revolution

When Chilean liberals begun the 1851 Revolution Mapuche chief Mañil joined the rebel army and fought with José María de la Cruz army against the troops of Manuel Bulnes at the Battle of Loncomilla.[11] After defeat at Loncomilla Mañil returned south.[11] According to historian José Bengoa Mapuches saw the government at Santiago as their main enemy explaining thus the participation of Mapuches on the side of José María de la Cruz Concepción-based revolt.[11]

The encroachment of settlers that had advanced over time from the north across Bío Bío River into Mapuche territory and the appearance of German settlers in the south of the Mapuche territory lead chief Mañil in 1859 to call for an uprising to assert control over the territory.[12] The call was responded by most Mapuches except the communities at Purén, Choll Choll and the southern coastal Mapuches who had strong links with Valdivia.[12] The towns of Angol, Negrete and Nacimiento were attacked.[12] A peace proposal made by settlers was accepted in 1860 during a meeting of several Mapuche chiefs.[12] In the agreement it was established that land transferences could only be made with the approval of the chiefs.[12]

The 1859 uprising reinforced the view of Mapuches as a dangerous threat to the emerging settlements in Araucanía and made public opinion in Chile to push for the complete of incorporation of Araucanía into Chile.[13][14] These events contributed to the Chilean authorities decision of occupying Araucanía.[12]

Planning of the occupation[]

Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez 2

Photo of Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez, the planner and military leader of the occupation.

In 1823 Chilean minister Mariano Egaña had a law project aproved by the congress to colonize the territory between Imperial River and Bío Bío River establishing a series of forts on the northern shores of Imperial and Cautín River in the middle of Araucanía.[15] Chilean president Ramón Freire adopted the project initially but was later convinced to organize instead the expulsion of the Spanish from Chiloé Archipelago leaving the Araucanía issue pending.[15]

In 1849 Chilean minister Antonio Varas delivered a report to the Chilean congress where he analyzed the situation in Araucanía.[3][16] In his report Varas recommended a government regime distinct to the one for the rest of the country to be designed for an eventual incorporation of Araucanía.[16] In his report Varas express the view that the eventual mission of a conquest would be to civilize the indigenous inhabitans by raising their material standard and "raise their spirit to the moral and religious truths".[16]

Manuel Montt as President of Chile passed on December 7 of 1852 a law that created of the Province of Arauco, a territory intended to administer all territories south of the Bío-Bío River and north of Valdivia Province.[13][17]

The final planning of the occupation of Araucanía can be largely attributed to colonel Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez.[17][18] The plan outlined by Saavedra envisionaged a state-led colonization influenced by the developments of the United States frontier in sharp contrast to the old private enterprize-led Spanish colonization of Chile.[18] The plan included the following points:[13][18]

  1. The advancement of the Chilean Army to Malleco River and the establishment there of a defensive line.
  2. The subdivision of state land in plots and transfer of state titles of land in the territory between Malleco and Bío Bío River to privates.
  3. The colonization of Araucanía by Chilean and foreign settlers gathering at the same places foreign settlers of different nationalities to ease their assimilation.
  4. Indigenous peoples were to "enter into reduction and civilization".

Occupation[]

Change of Chile frontier border in the Occupation of the Araucanía - 1870

Map showing the "old" and the "new" frontier established by 1870

Chilean advance to Malleco (1861–62)[]

In 1861 Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez ordered major Pedro Lagos to advance into the confluence of Mulchén River with Bureo River.[19] A small fort was erected at the place between December 1861 and May 1862 after the local Mapuche chief Manuel Nampai handed over land. From this fort the town of Mulchén grew out.[19] Following a custom inherited from colonial times Saavedra assigned salaries to friendly Mapuche chiefs in zone of Mulchén.[20]

Cornelio Saavedra attempted to pressure the Chilean government to approve his plans by presenting his renounce in December 1861 and again in February 1862.[21][22][23]

In 1862 Saavedra advanced with a group of 800 soldiers into the remnants of the town of Angol while other troops reinforced the defences of Los Ángeles, Negrete, Nacimiento and Mulchén. An eventual defence of Purén and Santa Bárbara was to be made by groups of civilians.[24]

Mapuche response and Chilean coastal avance (1863–68)[]

Saavedra retired from the army in January 1864 after political pressures from the ministers of President José Joaquín Pérez.[25] The Chincha Islands War between Spain and an alliance between Chile and Peru made the government call Saavedra into the army again in 1866 in order to defend the coast of Araucanía against possible Spanish attacks.[26] Saavedra ordered a fort to be constructed in the coast between Lebu and Imperial River.[26] The government also granted Saavedra three steam ships to scout the coast.[27] On December 1866 the coastal locality of Queule was occupied by Chilean troops.[27]

In response to the Chilean advances the Arribanos decided to go to war while the Lafquenches of Budi Lake, Toltén and Queule made a meeting where they declared themselves neutral in the conflict but still loyal to the Chilean government.[23] The Pehuenches did also declare themselves neutral.[23] The Pehuenche chief Pichiñán is reported to have spoken against the Moluches who wanted war claiming that they engaged in robbery and received for that just punishments by Chileans.[23] Historian José Bengoa claims Pehuenche neutrality was indebted to the fact that their lands in the Andes were not subject to colonization.[23]

In 1867 Saavedra called the Mapuches to a "parliament" where he informed them of the Chilean decision of fortifyng the Malleco River line.[28] The parliament was attended by around thousand Abajinos.[29] The Arribanos gathered around 2000 men near the parliament but refused to attend unless the Chileans send some men as hostages.[29] Despite this incident the a parliament was held next day.[29] Mapuches are reported to have been infuriated when they discovered the plans of Saavedra and that Mapuche chief Nahueltripai had allowed the Chileans to establish forts in his lands.[29]

These events lead to the formation of an alliance between the northern Abajinos and the Arribanos.[28]

Second Chilean campaign (April 1868 – March 1869)[]

As the Mapuches prepared for war many moved their families to safe sites at south of Cautín River (according to El Mercurio de Valparaíso) or to Lonquimay (according to El Ferrocarril).[30] The Abajino chiefs Catrileo and Pinolevi who had close ties with the Chilean government refused to join the Abajino-Arribano alliance and were in 1868 killed in a malón directed at them.[31]

In 1868 the Arribano chief Quilapán, son of Mañil, attacked a Chilean outpost at Chihuaihue.[30] A group led by Pedro Lagos was assaulted while moving to Quechereguas.[30] Yet another party of Mapuches defeated a Chilean Army group killing 23 of 28 soldiers.[30] In response to the initial failure comandant José Manuel Pinto launched a scorched earth strategy in Mapuche lands in the summer of 1869.[30] In these incursions by the Chilean Armies houses and crop fields were looted and more than 2 million livestock animals stolen from Mapuches.[32] Part of the Mapuche civil population, including women and children, were either killed or held captive.[32][33] In addition to the pillaging be the Chilean Army bandits did also looted Mapuche property with consent of Chilean authorities.[34] The Mapuches refused to engage in battles allowing the Chilean armies cross all over their territory.[35] The differences in war materiel between Mapuches and the Chilean Army was huge, while Chileans used repeating rifles Mapuches had few firearms and used bolas, spears and slings.[32][36]

The war provoked a famine among Mapuches in the winter of 1869, with the situation being worsened by an smallpox epidemic.[37] Some Mapuches sold their few remaining livestock and their silver adornments in the towns of La Frontera to obtain food.[37]

Parliaments of Toltén and Ipilco (December 1869 – January 1870)[]

Ocupacion de la Araucanía 1869

Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez in a meeting with the main loncos of Araucania in 1869

In late 1869 and early 1870 Saavedra arranged two parliaments; one at Toltén and another at Ipinco.[38] At Toltén Saavedra attempted to made agreements with the southern chiefs in order to isolate Quilapán. The chiefs attending the meeting could not agree on wether Saavedra should be allowed to establish a town in southern Araucanía or not.[38] At Toltén Mapuche chiefs revealed to Saavedra that Orélie-Antoine de Tounens was once again at Araucanía.[38] Upon hearing that his prescense in Araucanía had been revealed Orélie-Antoine de Tounens fled to Argentina, having however promised Quilapán to obtain arms.[38] There is some reports that a shipment arms seized by Argentine authorities at Buenos Aires in 1871 was ordered Orélie-Antoine de Tounens.[39] A French battleship, d'Entrecasteaux, that anchored in 1870 at Corral drew suspicions from Saavedra of some sort of French interference.[38]

The parliament at Ipinco the Abajinos rejected all the points proposed by Saavedra but did nonetheless serve to weaken their alliance with the Arribanos.[38]

Continued war (May 1870 – March 1871)[]

In 1870 the Chilean Army resumed its operations against the Mapuches. Pinto declared formally war to the Mapuches on behalf of Chile on May 1870.[40] In the 1870-1871 period the Mapuches tended to evacuate their families in advance prior to the arrivals of the looting Chilean Army.[41] During the winter of 1870 the Chilean Army continued to burn rucas and stealing livestock.[41] These inconclusive operations were subject of ridicule in some Santiago newspapers.[41]

In the summer of 1871 Quilapán amazed an army that included reinforcement of Mapuches comming from Argentina and launched a campaign against the fortified Malleco Line and the settlers around it.[42] This attack was repulsed by the Chilean Army whose cavalry had recently changed its Minié rifles by Spencer repeating rifle giving them a distinctive advantage against the Mapuches.[42]

Final occupation[]

Tropas de Cornelio Saavedra en la Araucanía

Chilean army during the Occupation of Araucanía.

In 1883 Chile refounded the old city of Villarrica ending thus formally the process of occupation of Araucanía.[8]

Consequences[]

Carta de colonización 1916

Map of land ownership in western Araucanía in 1916.

Further information: Mapuche conflict

By 1929 the Chilean government had given nearly 5,000 hectares of land in more than three thousand plots to settlers in Araucanía.[17]

The forts established in coast became nuclei for the formation of new towns.[43]

In the years following the occupation the economy of Araucanía changed from being based on sheep and cattle herding to one based on agriculture and wood extraction.[44] The loss of land by Mapuches following the occupation caused severe erosion since Mapuches continued to practise a massive livestock herding in limited areas.[45]

References[]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Bengoa 2000, pp. 45-46.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Bengoa 2000, p. 154.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Bengoa 2000, p. 162.
  4. ↑ Bengoa 2000, p. 151.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Bengoa 2000, p. 155.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Bengoa 2000, p. 156.
  7. ↑ Bengoa 2000, p. 157.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Ocupación de la Araucanía: El fin de la autonomía territorial mapuche". Memoria chilena. http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/index.asp?id_ut=ocupaciondelaaraucaniaenelchilerepublicano(1860-1883). Retrieved June 30, 2013. 
  9. ↑ "Ocupación de la Araucanía: Estafas". Memoria chilena. http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/dest.asp?id=ocupacionestafas. Retrieved June 30, 2013. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Ferrando 1986, pp. 395-396
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Bengoa 2000, pp. 163-165.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 Bengoa 2000, pp. 166-170.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Ferrando 1986, pp. 398-402 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Ferrando398-402" defined multiple times with different content
  14. ↑ "Ocupación de la Araucanía: Tema de debate". Memoria chilena. http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/dest.asp?id=ocupaciontemadedebate. Retrieved June 30, 2013. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Ferrando 1986, pp. 386-387
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Ferrando 1986, pp. 389-391
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Villalobos et al. 1974, pp. 575-581.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Bengoa 2000, pp. 170-174.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Ferrando 1986, p. 426
  20. ↑ Ferrando 1986, pp. 427-428
  21. ↑ Ferrando 1986, pp. 425
  22. ↑ Ferrando 1986, pp. 429
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 Bengoa 2000, pp. 189-192.
  24. ↑ Ferrando 1986, pp. 431-432
  25. ↑ Ferrando 1986, pp. 437
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Ferrando 1986, pp. 441
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Ferrando 1986, pp. 442
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Bengoa 2000, p. 197.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 Guevara, Tomás quoted in Bengoa 2000, p. 197-198.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 Bengoa 2000, pp. 205-207.
  31. ↑ Bengoa 2000, pp. 201-203.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 "Ocupación de la Araucanía: Segunda campaña de Cornelio Saavedra". Memoria chilena. http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/dest.asp?id=ocupacionsegundacampana. Retrieved June 30, 2013. 
  33. ↑ Bengoa 2000, p. 208.
  34. ↑ Bengoa 2000, p. 217.
  35. ↑ Bengoa 2000, p. 222.
  36. ↑ Bengoa 2000, p. 213.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Bengoa 2000, p. 224.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 38.5 Bengoa 2000, pp. 227-230.
  39. ↑ Bengoa 2000, p. 187.
  40. ↑ Bengoa 2000, pp. 238.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Bengoa 2000, pp. 240.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Bengoa 2000, pp. 243-246.
  43. ↑ Ferrando 1986, pp. 447
  44. ↑ Pinto Rodríguez, Jorge (2011). "Ganadería y empresarios ganaderos de la Araucanía, 1900-1960". pp. 369–400. http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0717-71942011000200004&script=sci_arttext. 
  45. ↑ Bengoa 2000, pp. 262-263.

Bibliography[]

  • Bengoa, José (2000). Historia del pueblo mapuche: Siglos XIX y XX (Seventh ed.). LOM ediciones. ISBN 956-282-232-X. 
  • Ferrando Kaun, Ricardo (1986). Y así nació La Frontera... (Second ed.). Editorial Antártica. ISBN 978-956-7019-83-0. 
  • Villalobos R., Sergio; Silva G., Osvaldo; Silva V., Fernando; Estelle M., Patricio (1974). Historia de Chile (1995 ed.). Editorial Universitaria. ISBN 956-11-1163-2. 

See also[]

  • Araucanization
  • Chilenization of Tacna, Arica and Tarapacá
  • Conquest of the Desert
  • Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia
  • War of Arauco
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