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Chinese aircraft carrier Liaoning

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"Type 001" redirects here. For other uses, see Type 1 (disambiguation).
Liaoning (16)
Aircraft Carrier Liaoning CV-16
The aircraft carrier Liaoning in Hong Kong in 2017
Class overview
Builders: Dalian Shipbuilding Industry
Operators:  People's Liberation Army Navy
Preceded by: Kiev class
Succeeded by: Type 002 Shandong
Completed: 1
Career (Soviet Union → Ukraine) →
Name: Riga (1988) then Varyag (1990)
Namesake: City of Riga, Latvia (1988) then Varyag, named for the Varangians (1990), the name Varyag was then adopted by another cruiser.
Ordered: 1983
Builder:
Laid down: 6 December 1985
Launched: 4 December 1988
Completed: Abandoned (68% complete)[1]
Fate:
  • Sold to a Chinese buyer, 1998
  • Transferred to the Chinese navy, 2002
Career (China)
Name:
  • Liaoning
  • (Chinese: 辽宁舰)
Namesake: Liaoning Province
Builder: Dalian Shipbuilding Industry
Cost: US$ 120 Million (Former Ukraine)
Completed: 2011
Commissioned: 25 September 2012
Motto: (Simplified Chinese:保卫祖国，勇争第一)：Defend the motherland, strive to be the first.[2]
Status: In active service
Badge: See #Ship Emblem
General characteristics for Varyag as originally designed
Class & type: Type 001, Kuznetsov-class aircraft carrier
Type: STOBAR aircraft carrier
Displacement:
  • 43,000 tons, light[3][4]
  • 54,500 tons, normal[5]
  • 60,900 tons, full load [5]
Length:
  • 306.4 m (1,005 ft 3 in) o/a[5]
  • 270 m (885 ft 10 in) w/l
    • Beam:
  • 74.4 m (244 ft 1 in) o/a[5]
  • 35 m (114 ft 10 in) w/l
    • Installed power: Steam
    Propulsion:
    Speed: 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph)
    Range: 3,850 nmi (7,130 km; 4,430 mi) at 32 knots
    Endurance: 45 days
    Complement:
    • 1,960 crew
    • 626 air group
    • 40 flag staff
    Sensors and
    processing systems:
  • Type 346 radar S-band AESA
  • Type 382 Radar 3-D search
    • General characteristics for Liaoning after refit
    Class & type: Type 001 aircraft carrier
    Armament:
    Aircraft carried:
  • 24 Shenyang J-15[8]
  • 6 Changhe Z-18F
  • 6 Changhe Z-18J
  • 2 Harbin Z-9
  • Total of 40 fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft.[citation needed]

    • Liaoning (16; Chinese: 辽宁舰; pinyin: Liáoníng Jiàn) is a Chinese Type 001 aircraft carrier. The first aircraft carrier commissioned into the People's Liberation Army Navy Surface Force, she was originally classified as a training ship, intended to allow the Navy to experiment, train and gain familiarity with aircraft carrier operations. Following upgrades and additional training in late 2018, Chinese state media announced that the ship would shift to a combat role in 2019.[9]

    Originally laid down in 1985 for the Soviet Navy as the Kuznetsov-class aircraft carrier Riga, she was launched on 4 December 1988 and renamed Varyag in 1990.[10] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, construction was halted and the ship was put up for sale by Ukraine. The stripped hulk was purchased in 1998 and after much delay, towed to the Dalian naval shipyard in northeast China, arriving in 2002.

    The ship was rebuilt and commissioned into the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) as Liaoning on 25 September 2012. Its Chinese ship class designation is Type 001. In November 2016, the political commissar of Liaoning, Commodore Li Dongyou, stated that Liaoning was combat-ready.[10]

    Classification[]

    See also: Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits#Aircraft carriers

    The Kuznetsov-class ships were originally designated by the Soviet Navy as "тяжёлый авианесущий крейсер" (tyazholiy avianesushchiy kreyser, TAKR or TAVKR), meaning "heavy aircraft-carrying cruiser". In addition to aircraft, the ships were designed to carry P-700 Granit anti-ship cruise missiles that also form the main armament of the Kirov-class battlecruisers. This multirole capability allowed the ships to avoid classification as aircraft carriers, thus allowing them to pass through the Turkish Straits between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. Under the Montreux Convention, aircraft carriers larger than 15,000 tons are not permitted to pass through the Straits, but there is no displacement limit on other types of capital ships from Black Sea powers.[11][12]

    In contrast, the People's Liberation Army Navy considers Liaoning to be an aircraft carrier.[13] Since China is not located on the Black Sea and thus not considered a Black Sea power under the Montreux Convention, it does not need and cannot use the tonnage exemption for non-aircraft carrier capital ships. The ship was completed as an aircraft carrier, and cruise missiles were never installed. Liaoning is equipped only with air defense weapons and must use its aircraft for a surface attack.

    History[]

    Origin[]

    For other ships of the same name, see Russian ship Varyag.

    The ship was laid down as Riga at Shipyard 444 (now Mykolaiv South) in Mykolaiv, Ukrainian SSR, on 6 December 1985.[14][15] Design work was undertaken by the Nevskoye Planning and Design Bureau.[16] Launched on 4 December 1988, the carrier was renamed Varyag in late 1990, after a previous similarly named cruiser launched in 1899. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, the ship was only 68% complete.[1] Construction was halted, and the ship was put up for sale. The name Varyag was then adopted by another cruiser launched in 1983.

    Sale[]

    Ukraine approached China, India, and Russia as potential buyers.[1] China sent a high-level delegation in 1992, which reported that the ship was in good condition and recommended a purchase. However, the Chinese government declined to purchase the ship because of the international diplomatic situation at the time.[17] Unable to find a buyer, Ukraine left the ship to deteriorate in the elements.[18]

    In 1998, the rusting hulk was sold at auction for $20 million to Agencia Turistica E Diversões Chong Lot Limitada, a company from Macau. Chong Lot proposed to tow Varyag to Macau under pretenses of conversion into a $200 million floating hotel and casino;[19] Western observers were suspicious of the deal since Chong Lot had no listed telephone number, was not located at its listed address, and was run by former officers in the Chinese Navy. Officials in Macau also denied Chong Lot's application to operate a casino. However, analysts noted that Varyag had deteriorated too much to be used as an operational warship and pointed out that the Chinese Navy was concentrating on submarines.[15][18] The Soviet carriers Kiev and Minsk had also been sold to China as tourist attractions.

    In January 2015, further details emerged in an interview with Hong Kong-based businessman Xu Zengping by the South China Morning Post. Xu, a former military basketball player, reported that he had been commissioned by the PLAN to purchase the vessel on its behalf, with the floating hotel and casino as a cover story. He was warned that the Chinese Navy did not have the budget to buy the ship, and the Chinese government did not support the purchase. However, Xu was so impressed when touring the ship that he resolved to purchase it using his personal funds. The previous year, Xu had borrowed HK$230 million from a Hong Kong business friend, spending HK$6 million to create Chong Lot as a Macau shell corporation. He described a harrowing negotiation in Kyiv, lubricated by bribery and liquor, which helped to arrange victory at the auction. As a precaution, he shipped 40 tonnes of the carrier's blueprints to China overland in eight trucks.[17][20]

    Transfer to China[]

    Ex-Varyag under tow in Istanbul in 2001

    Ex-Varyag under tow in Istanbul in 2001

    The passage from Ukraine to China was even more troublesome than the purchase. In June 2000, Varyag was taken under tow. As the tugboat approached the Bosphorus, Turkey denied permission for the ship to pass through, citing the risk that a gust of wind would turn the ship widthwise and block the entire strait. Varyag spent the next 16 months being towed around the Black Sea, accruing towing charges of $8,500 a day as Chong Lot stopped paying its bills. The tugboat operator compared its fate to the Yellow Fleet that was stuck in the Suez Canal for eight years, and French thrillseekers even landed a helicopter on the ship.[18] Meanwhile, Chinese officials negotiated with Turkey, offering trade and tourism concessions.[21]

    In August 2001, Turkey relented and agreed to allow the ship to pass. On 1 November 2001, the Bosphorus was cleared of all other traffic as Varyag was towed through.[21][22] On 2 November, Varyag also passed through the Dardanelles without incident. On 4 November, Varyag was caught in a force 10 gale and broke adrift while passing the Greek island of Skyros. The ship was taken back under tow on 6 November, after one sailor died while attempting to attach the tow lines.[23][24]

    The Suez Canal does not permit passage of "dead" ships – those without an on-board power source – so the hulk was towed through the Strait of Gibraltar, around Pointe des Almadies and the Cape of Good Hope, past Cape Agulhas and into the Indian Ocean and through the Straits of Malacca at an average speed of 6 knots (11 km/h; 6.9 mph) across the 15,200-nautical-mile (28,200 km; 17,500 mi) journey. The tugboat fleet called for supplies en route at Piraeus, Greece; Las Palmas, Canary Islands; Maputo, Mozambique; and Singapore. Varyag entered Chinese waters on 20 February 2002, and arrived on 3 March at the Dalian naval shipyard in northeast China. The costs included $25 million to the Ukrainian government for the hull, nearly $500,000 in transit fees, and $5 million for 20 months of towing fees.[citation needed]

    Xu Zengping estimated in 2015 that his total out-of-pocket cost was at least US$120 million. He insisted that he had never been reimbursed by the Chinese government, and had spent the last 18 years repaying his debts, in part by selling properties such as his home. A source familiar with the acquisition explained that the naval official, Ji Shengde, who initiated the mission, had been in prison because of smuggling.[25]

    Contrary to initial reports that the ship had no engines, Xu reported that all four original engines remained intact at the time of purchase, but had been shut down and preserved in grease seals.[26] A refit restored them to working order in 2011.

    Modernization and refurbishment[]

    The 701st Institute was tasked to redesign Varyag; Zhu Yingfu (朱英富) and Wu Xiaoguang (吴晓光) were assigned as the general designer and deputy general designer, respectively. Wang Zhiguo (王治国) was assigned as the general system engineer, and Yang Lei (杨雷) was assigned as the general supervisor.[27] The workload of converting Varyag for operational use was equivalent to building ten new destroyers.[27] Varyag was moved in June 2005 to a dry dock at Dalian (38°56′06″N 121°36′51″E / 38.935°N 121.6141°E / 38.935; 121.6141 (Varyag)). Her hull was sandblasted, scaffolding erected, and the ship's island was painted in a red marine primer to treat metal corrosion.[28]

    Liaoning at shipyard in , China (2012)

    Liaoning at CSIC shipyard in Dalian, China (2012)

    Observers have noted the installation of Type 348 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar (four arrays) and Sea Eagle radar.[citation needed] The air defence system consists of the Type 1130 CIWS and the HQ-10 missile system. The anti-ship missile tubes would not be used, freeing up internal space for hangar or storage use. Russia has explored similar modifications to her sister ship Admiral Kuznetsov.[29]

    In 2011 an analyst of DigitalGlobe (later: Maxar) spotted Liaoning as an aircraft carrier.[30]

    On 8 June 2011, General Chen Bingde made the first public acknowledgement of the ship's refit.[31] On 27 July 2011, the Chinese Defence Ministry announced it was refitting the vessel for "scientific research, experiment and training".[32]

    In 2018, Asia Times reported that Sun Bo, a general manager of China Shipbuilding Industry Corporation, had allegedly passed on technical details of Liaoning to the Central Intelligence Agency. Sun was a general manager at the Dalian shipyard where the ship's refurbishment was done.[33]

    Sea trials[]

    Liaoning in the East China Sea (2020)

    Liaoning in the East China Sea (2020)

    The ship undertook her first sea trials from 10 August 2011 to 15 August 2011.[34] On 29 November 2011 the carrier left port for her second set of trials.[35][36][37] The carrier completed her eighth sea trial between 7 and 21 June 2012 and returned to Dalian. In July 2012, the ship set out for the longest trials thus far, 25 days.[38] The carrier completed sea trials in early August 2012 and loaded Shenyang J-15 aircraft and KJ-88, YJ-83K and YJ-91 missiles in preparation for weapons systems trials.[39]

    During sea trials, Liaoning experienced a steam burst in the engine compartment which forced the crew to evacuate some parts of the ship, and the ship lost power. The problem was ultimately resolved and power was restored, although the time duration of the problem has not been released by military officials.[40]

    Handover to the Navy[]

    On 23 September 2012, the aircraft carrier was handed over to the PLAN, and was commissioned on 25 September 2012.[41] At the commissioning ceremony, the carrier was officially named Liaoning, in honour of the province in which she was retrofitted.[42][43] On 26 December 2012, the People's Daily reported that it would take four to five years for Liaoning to reach full capacity.[44] As it was a training ship until 2018, Liaoning was not assigned to any of China's operational fleets.[45]

    According to geopolitical analysts, China could use Liaoning and its future carriers to intimidate other countries that have territorial claims in the South China Sea, as well as extending air control further south of the disputed region.[46] In December 2016 the ship exercised in the Western Pacific, including passing through the Miyako Strait between the Japanese islands of Miyako-jima and Okinawa.[47][48] On 18 April 2018, Liaoning took part in the navy's live-fire exercises in the South China Sea, involving 76 fighter jets and 48 warships and submarines. The drills came after a large military display presided over by Chinese paramount leader Xi Jinping, and were condemned by Taiwan as "military intimidation".[49]

    Design[]

    Main article: Kuznetsov-class aircraft carrier#Design
    Aerial image from the stern of Liaoning in 2022

    Aerial image from the stern of Liaoning in 2022

    The Type 001 is built upon the unfinished hull of Kuznetsov-class aircraft carrier Varyag. Unlike Soviet Admiral Kuznetsov, the Chinese Type 001 ships are configured solely as aircraft carriers. The cruise missile launchers were never installed, and the launcher base was removed during the refit to incorporate a larger hangar bay. The air-defense system consists of FL-3000N surface-to-air-missiles and the Type 1130 CIWS.[50][51]

    In August 2014, the Chinese-language Shanghai Morning Post listed that Liaoning would carry 36 aircraft: 24 Shenyang J-15 fighters, six Changhe Z-18F anti-submarine warfare (ASW) helicopters, four Changhe Z-18J airborne early warning helicopters and two Harbin Z-9C rescue helicopters. The Chinese carrier aircraft inventory is similar to a balanced combat and support aircraft approach intended for Soviet aircraft carriers, which supported nuclear submarines, large surface combatants, and land-based strike bombers performing anti-access roles.

    The Soviet lineage has its limitations. The air wing lacks long-range radar and anti-submarine fixed-wing aircraft, needing support from shore-based aircraft such as Tupolev Tu-154 ASW and Shaanxi Y-8 AWACS aircraft. The U.S. Department of Defense noted that J-15s will have below normal range and armament when operating from the carrier, due to limits imposed by the ski-jump takeoff system.[52] The lack of a carrier onboard delivery aircraft like the United States Navy (USN) Grumman C-2 Greyhound also limits logistics capabilities. Liaoning would need extensive land-based support to oppose a USN carrier strike group; however, it would be potent against the Vietnam People's Navy and the Philippine Navy. Deficiencies will likely be corrected with future aircraft carriers, which are expected to be larger with conventional takeoff decks and catapult launching for heavier fighters, plus fixed-wing radar and anti-submarine patrol aircraft.[53]

    Operational history[]

    Home port[]

    Liaoning is visible on satellite imagery regularly berthed at a large jetty at the Yuchi Naval Base (near Huangdao) in China's Shandong province since 2013; this is reported as its home port.[54][55]

    Maintenance[]

    In August 2018, the South China Morning Post reported that Liaoning was berthed at Dalian undergoing its first refit since its commissioning in 2012. The radar above Liaoning's bridge and the air traffic control at the rear of the island superstructure were noted to have been removed, and scaffolding was also noted around the command center.[56] The refit was completed in January 2019, spending about six months. The ship superstructure was modified with an improved design, and the flight deck was completely stripped and refurbished.[57]

    Training and aircraft handling[]

    Liaoning at sea (2018)

    Liaoning at sea (2018)

    On 4 November 2012, the People's Liberation Army's website (Chinese: 中国军网) reported that Shenyang J-15s had performed carrier touch-and-go training.[58][59] On 25 November 2012, China announced that J-15s had made five successful arrested landings on Liaoning.[60][61] In June 2013, a second round of flight tests began on board Liaoning, with personnel from the fleet air arm of the Brazilian Navy providing carrier training support to the People's Liberation Army Navy Air Force who operate the J-15s.[62][63]

    In August 2014, based on an article from Chinese state media, Western news outlets reported that two pilots had been killed testing jets slated to operate from Liaoning.[64][65] Chinese military officials stated such reports were misleading, and clarified that deaths were in fact unrelated with tests on the carrier.[66][67] The original Chinese article from Xinhua also did not link the deaths with the J-15 nor mention any loss of such aircraft.[68]

    On 5 April 2021, the aircraft carrier Liaoning, destroyers Chengdu, Taiyuan, Nanchang, frigate Huanggang and supply ship Hulunhu were spotted between Okinawa and Miyako Island.[69]

    In December 2021, Liaoning carrier group was deployed to Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and the Western Pacific.[70]

    In May 2022, Liaoning and its carrier strike group conducted drills in the East China Sea and they were sighted near Miyako Island by the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force.[71] Japanese analysts noted a very high operational tempo from Liaoning, which suggested China's growing confidence and maturity in aircraft carrier operations.[72][73]

    On 14 October 2024, Chinese Eastern Theater Command spokesman Captain Li Xi confirmed that the Liaoning aircraft carrier group was taking part in the Joint Sword-2024B military exercises around Taiwan.[74]

    Ship Emblem[]

    External images
    Emblem of Liaoning.[75]

    The emblem of Liaoning has the characters "中国人民解放军海军辽宁舰" ("Chinese PLAN ship Liaoning") at the top and has the ship motto at the bottom.[75]

    See also[]

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    References[]

    1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Ukrainians Slice Up Carrier Ulyanovsk". Defense News. 21–27 September 1992. "A second aircraft carrier is 68 percent complete and lacks electronics, weapons systems and aircraft, but sale of the carrier to India or China "is a fairy tale scenario," said Antonov. Russia is the only realistic potential purchaser." 
    2. ↑ "細看福建艦艦徽大有玄機，使命任務已經標註，寓意深遠". 網易. 22 June 2022. https://www.163.com/dy/article/HAF8SMSS0552IAMR.html. Retrieved 2022-06-22. 
    3. ↑ "Admiral Flota Sovetskogo Soyuza Kuznetsov". Rusnavy.com. http://rusnavy.com/nowadays/strength/surfaceships/kuznetzov/. 
    4. ↑ "Kuznetsov Class: Project 1143.5". Globalsecurity.org. 7 September 2011. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/1143_5-specs.htm. 
    5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 "辽宁舰：我国第一艘航空母舰" (in zh-hans). 央视新闻客户端. 2017-04-26. http://m.news.cctv.com/2017/04/26/ARTIRahhgJrxvSuVjhemYncG170426.shtml. Retrieved 2022-02-10. 
    6. ↑ "Source: New Russian-Made Boilers for Admiral Kuznetsov to Serve 25 Years". http://mil.today/2018/Navy14/. 
    7. ↑ "Liaoning (Varyag) Aircraft Carrier – SinoDefence". http://sinodefence.com/liaoning-varyag-class/. 
    8. ↑ Rick Joe (2021-05-20). "China's J-15 Carrierborne Fighter: Sizing up the Competition" (in en). The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2021/05/chinas-j-15-carrierborne-fighter-sizing-up-the-competition/. Retrieved 2022-06-18. 
    9. ↑ "Beijing says Liaoning is now a 'combat carrier'" (in en-US). 2019-04-25. https://asiatimes.com/2019/04/beijing-says-liaoning-is-now-a-combat-carrier/. 
    10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "How does China's first aircraft carrier stack up?". CSIS China Power. 9 December 2015. http://chinapower.csis.org/aircraft-carrier/. 
    11. ↑ 14 San Diego L. Rev. 681 (1976–1977) Kiev and the Montreux Convention: The Aircraft Carrier That Became a Cruiser to Squeeze through the Turkish Straits; Froman, F. David
    12. ↑ "The Tbilisi and the Montreux Convention". Osaarchivum.org. http://www.osaarchivum.org/files/holdings/300/8/3/text/143-4-146.shtml. 
    13. ↑ Tao, Zhang (20 October 2015). "Captain delegation of U.S. Navy visits Chinese Liaoning aircraft carrier". Ministry of National Defense of the People's Republic of China. http://eng.mod.gov.cn/Photos/2015-10/20/content_4625081.htm. 
    14. ↑ Rochlin, G. I; La Porte, T. R; Roberts, H (Autumn 1987). "The Self-Designing High-Reliability Organization: Aircraft Carrier Flight Operations at Sea". Naval War College. Footnote 39. http://www.nwc.navy.mil/press/review/1998/summer/art7su98.htm. 
    15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Storey, I; Ji, Y (Winter 2004). "China's Aircraft Carrier Ambitions: Seeking Truth from Rumors". Naval War College. http://www.nwc.navy.mil/press/Review/2004/Winter/art6-w04.htm. 
    16. ↑ "Aircraft Carrier Varyag". Russiafile.com. http://www.russiafile.com/varyag.htm. 
    17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Minnie Chan (19 January 2015). "The inside story of the Liaoning: how Xu Zengping sealed deal for China's first aircraft carrier". South China Morning Post. http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1681755/how-xu-zengping-became-middleman-chinas-deal-buy-liaoning. 
    18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Anderson, John Ward (22 July 2001). "Turks Keep Ship Going Round in Circles". https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2001/07/22/turks-keep-ship-going-round-in-circles/4ae7af0c-3004-43ad-9998-ae2941c01497/. 
    19. ↑ "Macau Company Denies Buying Carrier For China". Utusan Online. 11 November 1998. http://ww1.utusan.com.my/utusan/info.asp?y=1998&dt=1111&pub=Utusan_Express&sec=World_Trend&pg=wt_09.htm. 
    20. ↑ Minnie Chan (29 April 2015). "'Unlucky guy' tasked with buying China's aircraft carrier: Xu Zengping". South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/1779703/unlucky-guy-tasked-buying-chinas-aircraft-carrier-xu. 
    21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Giant vessel shuts the Bosphorus". BBC News. 1 November 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1632156.stm. 
    22. ↑ Holland, Ben (1 November 2001). "After 16 months, Turkey lets half-built aircraft carrier pass through Bosporus". AP Worldstream. Associated Press. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-47883439.html. 
    23. ↑ "UPI Insider". Chicago Sun-Times. Sun-Times Media Group. 9 November 2001. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-4617079.html. 
    24. ↑ "Varyag emerges from storm". 8 November 2001. http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/varyag-emerges-from-storm.html. 
    25. ↑ Minnie Chan (20 January 2015). "Mission impossible II: the battle to get China's aircraft carrier home". South China Morning Post. http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1682731/mission-impossible-ii-battle-get-chinas-aircraft-carrier-home. 
    26. ↑ Minnie Chan (19 January 2015). "Mission impossible: How one man bought China its first aircraft carrier". South China Morning Post. http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1681710/sea-trials-how-one-man-bought-china-its-aircraft-carrier?page=all. 
    27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 "Designers". http://www.360doc.com/content/17/0314/08/8527076_636684964.shtml. 
    28. ↑ "The Rising Sea Dragon in Asia Varyag Transformation". Jeffhead.com. 4 February 2011. http://www.jeffhead.com/redseadragon/varyagtransform.htm. 
    29. ↑ "Upgrading the Admiral: Russia's Kuznetsov". Defense Industry Daily. 8 April 2010. http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Upgrading-the-Admiral-Russias-Kuznetsov-06305/. 
    30. ↑ "China Carrier Confirmed by General" (in de). Rheinische Post / rp-online.de. 6 April 2022. https://rp-online.de/politik/ukraine-krieg-private-satellitenfirma-maxar-dokumentiert-kriegsgraeuel_aid-67806265. 
    31. ↑ "China Carrier Confirmed by General". BBC News. 8 June 2011. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13692558. 
    32. ↑ Li Gang (27 July 2011). "China refitting aircraft carrier body for research, training". http://eng.mod.gov.cn/TopNews/2011-07/27/content_4284108.htm. 
    33. ↑ Chen, Frank (21 June 2018). "Disgraced manager at shipbuilding juggernaut allegedly 'sold Chinese carrier intel to CIA'". https://asiatimes.com/2018/06/disgraced-csic-manager-allegedly-sold-chinese-carrier-intel-to-cia/. 
    34. ↑ "China's first aircraft carrier completes sea trial". 15 August 2011. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/video/2011-08/15/c_131050307.htm. 
    35. ↑ "China's first aircraft carrier starts second trial". MaritimeSecurity.Asia. http://maritimesecurity.asia/free-2/maritime-security-asia/chinas-first-aircraft-carrier-starts-second-trial/. 
    36. ↑ AFP (30 November 2011). "China's first aircraft carrier starts 2nd trial | World". Manilatimes.net. http://www.manilatimes.net/index.php/news/world/12229-chinas-first-aircraft-carrier-starts-2nd-trial. 
    37. ↑ Agencies (15 December 2011). "US satellite snaps China's first aircraft carrier at sea | World news | guardian.co.uk". London: Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/15/us-satellite-china-aircraft-carrier. 
    38. ↑ Yang, Jian (12 July 2012). "J-15 jets on deck as carrier sets off on longest sea trials". http://www.shanghaidaily.com/national/J15-jets-on-deck-as-carrier-sets-off-on-longest-sea-trials/shdaily.shtml. 
    39. ↑ "China's first aircraft carrier ready to enter service: report". 6 August 2012. http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?id=20120806000083&cid=1101. 
    40. ↑ "China's Aircraft Carrier Trouble: Spewing Steam and Losing Power". 22 October 2014. http://www.realcleardefense.com/articles/2014/10/22/chinas_aircraft_carrier_trouble_spewing_steam_and_losing_power_107506.html. 
    41. ↑ "China's first aircraft carrier enters service". BBC News. 25 September 2012. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-19710040. 
    42. ↑ Chang, Felix K. (October 2012). "Making Waves: Debates Behind China's First Aircraft Carrier". Foreign Policy Research Institute. p. 6. http://www.fpri.org/enotes/2012/201210.chang.aircraftcarrier.pdf. 
    43. ↑ Pang Li (10 September 2012). "China to name its first aircraft carrier 'Liaoning'". China.org.cn. http://www.china.org.cn/china/2012-09/10/content_26481340.htm. 
    44. ↑ "Liaoning aircraft carrier will reach full capacity in 4–5 years". AirForceWorld.com. 26 December 2012. http://www.airforceworld.com/blog/j15-fighter-takeoff-on-carrier-liaoning/. 
    45. ↑ Waldron, Greg (24 April 2013). "Chinese officer hints at country's big aircraft carrier plans". Flightglobal. http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/chinese-officer-hints-at-countrys-big-aircraft-carrier-plans-385065/. 
    46. ↑ Goldstein, Lyle (December 2011). "Chinese Naval Strategy in the South China Sea: An Abundance of Noise and Smoke, but Little Fire". Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 324. Digital object identifier:10.1355/cs33-3c. JSTOR 41446233. 
    47. ↑ Blanchard, Ben (29 December 2016). "Come and have a look, China says as carrier skirts Japan". In Birsel, Robert. Reuters. http://in.reuters.com/article/china-defence-carrier-idINKBN14I14T. "The Soviet-built Liaoning, accompanied by several warships, this week travelled through the passage between the Japanese islands of Miyako and Okinawa and into the Pacific for what China has described as a routine exercise." 
    48. ↑ "China's first aircraft carrier in Western Pacific drill". BBC Online. 25 December 2016. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-38431999. 
    49. ↑ CNBC (21 April 2018). "China navy drills in Pacific as tension with Taiwan rises". https://www.cnbc.com/2018/04/21/china-navy-drills-in-pacific-as-tension-with-taiwan-rises.html. 
    50. ↑ "Type 001 aircraft carrier Liaoning". 14 January 2017. https://sinodefence.com/2017/01/14/type-001-aircraft-carrier-liaoning/. 
    51. ↑ "Chinese Navy Liaoning Aircraft Carrier's H/PJ-14 (Type 1130) new generation CIWS". 21 March 2013. http://www.navyrecognition.com/index.php/news/defence-news/year-2013-news/march-2013-navy-world-naval-forces-maritime-industry-technology-news/951-chinese-navy-liaoning-aircraft-carriers-hpj-14-type-1130-new-generation-ciws-.html. 
    52. ↑ Annual Report to Congress: Military and Security Developments Involving the People's Republic of China 2013 (Report). Office of the Secretary of Defense. 2013. http://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2013_China_Report_FINAL.pdf. Retrieved 23 October 2013. 
    53. ↑ "Chinese Carrier's Purported Air Wing Deemed Plausible but Limited". Defense News. 7 September 2014. http://www.defensenews.com/article/20140907/DEFREG03/309070015/Chinese-Carrier-s-Purported-Air-Wing-Deemed-Plausible-Limited. 
    54. ↑ "Carrier Liaoning arrives at Qingdao home base" (in en). 28 February 2013. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1160632/carrier-liaoning-arrives-qingdao-home-base. 
    55. ↑ Jim Sciutto (7 April 2014). "Chuck Hagel becomes first foreigner to visit Chinese aircraft carrier". https://edition.cnn.com/2014/04/06/world/asia/china-aircraft-carrier-hagel/index.html. 
    56. ↑ Liu Zhen (28 August 2018). "China's Liaoning aircraft carrier gets brand new command centre". https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2161582/chinas-liaoning-aircraft-carrier-gets-brand-new-command. 
    57. ↑ Vavasseur, Xavier (24 January 2019). "Liaoning Aircraft Carrier Returns To Sea After Refit". https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2019/01/liaoning-aircraft-carrier-returns-to-sea-after-refit/. 
    58. ↑ "滑跃14°：中国海军起飞的仰角". 解放军报. Beijing. 4 November 2012. http://www.chinamil.com.cn/jfjbmap/content/2012-11/04/content_18494.htm. 
    59. ↑ "解放军报还原中国航母舰载机触舰复飞瞬间（图）". 中国新闻网. Beijing. 4 November 2012. http://www.chinanews.com/mil/2012/11-04/4299716_2.shtml. 
    60. ↑ "J-15 successfully landed on China's carrier Liaoning". 25 November 2012. http://english.sina.com/china/2012/1124/530358.html. 
    61. ↑ "More photos of the two J-15s landing and taking off on Liaoning" (in zh-hans-CN). 新华网. Beijing. 25 November 2012. http://news.qq.com/a/20121125/000007.htm#p=1. 
    62. ↑ LaGrone, Sam (19 June 2013). "China Carrier Starts Second Round of Jet Tests". USNI News. United States Naval Institute. http://news.usni.org/2013/06/19/china-carrier-starts-second-round-of-jet-tests. "The Chinese are being trained in carrier aviation—the most complicated military aviation operations—by a cadre of Brazilian carrier pilots." 
    63. ↑ Waldron, Greg (4 July 2013). "China certifies first aircraft carrier pilots". Flightglobal. http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/china-certifies-first-aircraft-carrier-pilots-387945/. 
    64. ↑ LaGrone, Sam (8 September 2014). "Two PLA Pilots Have Died Testing Fighters for Chinese Carrier". USNI News. United States Naval Institute. http://news.usni.org/2014/09/05/two-pla-pilots-died-testing-planes-chinese-carrier. 
    65. ↑ "China reveals two aircraft carrier test pilots killed - Yahoo!7". https://au.news.yahoo.com/world/a/24916546/china-reveals-two-aircraft-carrier-test-pilots-killed/. 
    66. ↑ "China denies reports of pilots killed in J-15 tests". http://www.janes.com/article/42928/china-denies-reports-of-pilots-killed-in-j-15-tests. 
    67. ↑ "军方否认2名殉职飞行员系在航母测试中牺牲". 7 September 2014. http://mil.news.sina.com.cn/2014-09-07/1509799571.html. 
    68. ↑ "中央军委主席习近平签署命令 给1个单位、1名个人授予荣誉称号". http://news.xinhuanet.com/2014-08/27/c_1112254808.htm. 
    69. ↑ "Chinese Type 055 destroyer joins aircraft carrier group for first time" (in en). 2021-04-06. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3128484/chinese-type-055-destroyer-joins-aircraft-carrier-group-first. 
    70. ↑ Mahadzir, Dzirhan (31 December 2021). "Chinese Carrier Strike Group Liaoning Returns From Deployment". https://news.usni.org/2021/12/31/chinese-carrier-strike-group-liaoning-returns-from-deployment. 
    71. ↑ "Chinese Carrier Strike Group Now Operating in the East China Sea". 23 May 2022. https://news.usni.org/2022/05/23/chinese-carrier-strike-group-now-operating-in-east-china-sea. 
    72. ↑ Nemoto, Ryo (11 May 2022). "China aircraft carrier stages 100-plus takeoffs near Okinawa islands". https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Indo-Pacific/China-aircraft-carrier-stages-100-plus-takeoffs-near-Okinawa-islands. 
    73. ↑ Sutton, H I (17 Jun 2022). "China Launches First Aircraft Carrier Which Rivals U.S. Navy's". https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2022/06/china-launches-first-aircraft-carrier-which-rivals-u-s-navys/. 
    74. ↑ "China's military encircles Taiwan in 'warning' drills". 14 October 2024. https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20241013-china-says-launches-military-drills-around-taiwan. 
    75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 "看这些舰徽有多“靓”！ ---安徽全民国防教育网". https://gfjy.ahnews.com.cn/gfsp/con/2023-04/24/3613_824304.html. 

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  • Liaoning
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