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Boko Haram insurgency

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 It has been suggested that this article be merged into [[::Boko Haram|Boko Haram]]. (Discuss) Proposed since January 2015.
Boko Haram insurgency
Part of the Religious violence in Nigeria
Islamist insurgency in Nigeria
Previous situation on January 10th.
Date26 July 2009–present
(15 years, 6 months, 2 weeks and 5 days)
LocationNorthern Nigeria (2009)
Northern Cameroon (2012)
Niger (2015)
Chad (2015)[13]
Status

Ongoing

  • Spillover into Cameroon (since 2012) and into Niger (since 2015)
Belligerents
Flag of Nigeria Nigeria
Flag of Cameroon Cameroon[1]
Flag of Chad Chad[2]
Flag of Niger Niger[3]
Vigilante groups[4]
Supported by:
United States[5]
Flag of Benin Benin[3]
Flag of the United Kingdom United Kingdom[6][7]
Flag of France France[6]
Flag of the People's Republic of China China[6]
Flag of Canada Canada[8]
Flag of Iran Iran[9]
Flag of Israel Israel[10]		 ShababFlag Boko Haram
Flag of Ansaru Ansaru[11][12]
Supported by:
Flag of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant2 Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
Commanders and leaders
Nigeria Goodluck Jonathan
(2010-present)
Nigeria Ibrahim Geidam
(2007-2009)
Nigeria Ali Modu Sheriff
(1999-2003)
Nigeria Isa Yuguda
(2003-2005)
Cameroon Paul Biya
(1982-present)
Chad Idriss Déby
(1990-present)
Niger Mahamadou Issoufou
(2011-present)		 ShababFlag Abubakar Shekau
ShababFlag Mallam Sanni Umaru[14]
ShababFlag Mohammed Yusuf†
Flag of Ansaru Abu Usmatul al-Ansari
Flag of Ansaru Abu Jafa’ar
Strength
File:Nigerian Army crest.gif Nigerian Army:
130,000 Active frontline personnel and
32,000 Active reserve personnel
File:N igeria Police logo.jpg Nigeria Police Force:
371,800 officers
Flag of Cameroon Cameroonian Armed Forces:
20,000 soldiers
African Union:
8,700		 ShababFlag Boko Haram:
7,000–10,000 [15]
Casualties and losses
15,000 killed and
one million displaced[16][17][18][19][20]


The Boko Haram insurgency began in 2009, when the jihadist rebel group Boko Haram started an armed rebellion against the government of Nigeria.[21] In 2013, more than 1,000 died in the war. The violence escalated dramatically in 2014, with 10,849 deaths.[16][22][23][24] The insurgency has spread to Cameroon.

The insurgency takes place within the context of long-standing issues of religious violence between Nigeria's Muslim and Christian communities.

Background[]

Nigerian statehood[]

Nigeria was amalgamated in 1914, only about a decade after the defeat of the Sokoto Caliphate and other Islamic states by the British which were to constitute much of Northern Nigeria. The aftermath of the First World War saw Germany lose its colonies, one of which was Cameroon, to French, Belgian and British mandates. Cameroon was divided in French and British parts, the latter of which was further subdivided into southern and northern parts. Following a plebiscite in 1961, the Southern Cameroons elected to rejoin French Cameroon, while the Northern Cameroons opted to join Nigeria, a move which added to Nigeria's already large Northern Muslim population.[25] The territory comprised much of what is now Northeastern Nigeria, and a large part of the areas affected by the insurgency.

Early religious conflict in Nigeria[]

Main article: Religious violence in Nigeria

Religious conflict in Nigeria goes as far back as 1953. The Igbo massacre of 1966 in the North that followed the counter-coup of the same year had as a dual cause the Igbo officers' coup and pre-existing (sectarian) tensions between the Igbos and the local Muslims. This was a major factor in the Biafran secession and the resulting civil war.

Maitatsine[]

Main articles: Maitatsine and Yan Tatsine

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, there was a major Islamic uprising led by Maitatsine (Mohammed Marwa) and his followers, Yan Tatsine that led to several thousand deaths. After Maitatsine's death in 1980, the movement continued some five years more.

In the same decade the erstwhile military ruler of Nigeria, General Ibrahim Babangida enrolled Nigeria in the Organisation of the Islamic Conference. This was a move which aggravated religious tensions in the country, particularly among the Christian community.[26] In response, some in the Muslim community pointed out that certain other African member states have smaller proportions of Muslims, as well as Nigeria's diplomatic relations with the Holy See.

Establishment of Sharia[]

Use of Sharia in Nigeria

Status of sharia in Nigeria (2008):[27]

  Sharia applies in full, including criminal law
  Sharia applies only in personal status issues
  No sharia

Boko Haram in Lake Chad Region

Boko Haram in Lake Chad Region

See also: Sharia in Nigeria

Since the return of democracy to Nigeria in 1999, Sharia has been instituted as a main body of civil and criminal law in 9 Muslim-majority and in some parts of 3 Muslim-plurality states, when then-Zamfara State governor Ahmad Rufai Sani[28] began the push for the institution of Sharia at the state level of government. This was followed by controversy as to the would-be legal status of the non-Muslims in the Sharia system. A spate of Muslim-Christian riots soon emerged.

In the primarily Islamic northern states of Nigeria, a variety of Muslim groups and populations exist, who favour the nationwide introduction of Sharia Law.[29] The demands of these populations have been at least partially upheld by the Nigerian Federal Government in 12 states, firstly in Zamfara State in 1999. The implementation has been widely attributed as being due to the insistence of Zamfara State governor Ahmad Rufai Sani.[28]

The death sentences of Amina Lawal and Safiya Hussaini attracted international attention to what many saw as the harsh regime of these laws. These sentences were later overturned;[30] the first execution was carried out in 2002.[30]

Blasphemy and apostasy[]

Main article: Blasphemy law in Nigeria

Twelve out of Nigeria's thirty-six states have Sunni Islam as the dominant religion. In 1999, those states chose to have Sharia courts as well as Customary courts.[31] A Sharia court may treat blasphemy as deserving of several punishments up to, and including, execution.[32][33] In many predominantly Muslim states, conversion from Islam to another religion is illegal and often a capital offence.[34]

Demographic balance[]

According to a Nigerian study on demographics and religion, Muslims make up 50.5% of the population. Muslims mainly live in the north of the country; the majority of the Nigerian Muslims are Sunnis. Christians are the second-largest religious group and make up 48.2% of the population. They predominate in the central and southern part of the country.[35]

For reasons of avoiding political controversy, questions of religion were forgone in the 2006 Nigerian census.[36][37]

History[]

Main article: Timeline of the Islamist insurgency in Nigeria

2009 Boko Haram uprising[]

Main article: 2009 Boko Haram uprising

Boko Haram conducted its operations more or less peacefully during the first seven years of its existence.[38] That changed in 2009 when the Nigerian government launched an investigation into the group's activities following reports that its members were arming themselves.[39] Prior to that the government reportedly repeatedly ignored warnings about the increasingly militant character of the organisation, including that of a military officer.[39]

When the government came into action, several members of the group were arrested in Bauchi, sparking deadly clashes with Nigerian security forces which led to the deaths of an estimated 700 people. During the fighting with the security forces Boko Haram fighters reportedly "used fuel-laden motorcycles" and "bows with poison arrows" to attack a police station.[21] The group's founder and then leader Mohammed Yusuf was also killed during this time while still in police custody.[40][41][42] After Yusuf's killing, Abubakar Shekau became the leader and still holds the position as of January 2015.[43]

2010 resurgence[]

After the killing of M. Yusuf, the group carried out its first terrorist attack in Borno in January 2010. It resulted in the killing of four people.[44] Since then, the violence has only escalated in terms of both frequency and intensity. In September 2010, a Bauchi prison break freed more than 700 Boko Haram militants, replenishing their force.

2011[]

On 29 May 2011, a few hours after Goodluck Jonathan was sworn in as president, several bombings purportedly by Boko Haram killed 15 and injured 55. On 16 June, Boko Haram claimed to have conducted the Abuja police headquarters bombing, the first known suicide attack in Nigeria. Two months later the United Nations building in Abuja was bombed, signifying the first time that Boko Haram attacked an international organisation. In December, it carried out attacks in Damaturu killing over a hundred people, subsequently clashing with security forces in December, resulting in at least 68 deaths. Two days later on Christmas Day, Boko Haram attacked several Christian churches with bomb blasts and shootings.

2012[]

In January 2012, Abubakar Shekau, a former deputy to Yusuf, appeared in a video posted on YouTube. According to Reuters, Shekau took control of the group after Yusuf's death in 2009.[45] Authorities had previously believed that Shekau died during the violence in 2009.[46] By early 2012, the group was responsible for over 900 deaths.[47]

2013 Government offensive[]

In May 2013, Nigerian governmental forces launched an offensive in the Borno region in an attempt to dislodge Boko Haram fighters after a state of emergency was called on 14 May. The state of emergency, which is still in force as of May 2014, applies to the states of Borno, Yobe, and Adamawa in northeastern Nigeria.[48] The offensive had initial success, but the Boko Haram rebels have been able to regain their strength. In July, Boko Haram massacred several students in Yobe, bringing the school year to an early end in the state.On 5 August 2013 Boko Haram launched dual attacks on Bama and Malam Fatori, leaving 35 dead.[49]

2014 Chibok kidnapping[]

Main article: 2014 Chibok kidnapping

On 15 April 2014, terrorists abducted about 276 female students from a college in Chibok in Borno state.[50] The abduction was widely attributed to Boko Haram.[51] It was reported that the group had taken the girls to neighbouring Cameroon and Chad where they were to be sold into marriages at a price below a Dollar. The abduction of another eight girls was also reported later. These kidnappings raised public protests, with some protesters holding placards bearing the Twitter tag #bringbackourgirls which had caught international attention.[52] Several countries pledged support to the Nigerian government and to help their military with intelligence gathering on the whereabouts of the girls and the operational camps of Boko Haram.

2014 Jos Bombings[]

Main article: 2014 Jos bombings

On 20 May 2014, a total of two bombs in the city of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria, were detonated, resulting in the deaths of at least 118 people and the injury of more than 56 others. The bombs detonated 30 minutes apart, one at a local market place at approximately 3:00 and the second in a parking lot next to a hospital at approximately 3:30, where rescuers responding to the first accident were killed.[53] Though no group or individual has claimed responsibility, the attacks have been attributed to Boko Haram.[54]

First responders were unable to reach the scenes of the accidents, as "thousands of people were fleeing the scene in the opposite direction". The bombs had been positioned to kill as many people as possible, regardless of religion, which differed from previous attacks in which non-Muslims were targeted. The bombers were reported to have used a "back-to-back blast" tactic, in which an initial bomb explodes at a central location and another explodes a short time later with intent to kill rescue workers working to rescue the wounded.[55]

Other issues[]

Possible causes[]

The North consisted of Sahelian states that had long had an Islamic character. These were feudal and conservative, with rigid caste and class systems and large slave populations.[56] Furthermore, the North failed until 1936 to outlaw slavery.[57] Possibly due to geographical factors, many (but not necessarily all) southern tribes, particularly those on the coast, had made contact with Europeans - unlike the North which was engaged mainly with the Arab world and not Europe. Due to the system of indirect rule, the British were happy to pursue a limited course of engagement with the Emirs.[58] The traditionalist Northern elites were skeptical of Western education,[59][60][61] at the same time their Southern counterparts often sent their sons abroad to study. In time, a considerable developmental and educational gap grew to appear between the South and the North.[62][63] Even as of 2014, Northern states still lag behind in literacy, school attendance and educational achievement.[64]

Chris Kwaja, a Nigerian university lecturer and researcher, asserts that "religious dimensions of the conflict have been misconstrued as the primary driver of violence when, in fact, disenfranchisement and inequality are the root causes". Nigeria, he points out, has laws giving regional political leaders the power to qualify people as 'indigenes' (original inhabitants) or not. It determines whether citizens can participate in politics, own land, obtain a job, or attend school. The system is abused widely to ensure political support and to exclude others. Muslims have been denied indigene-ship certificates disproportionately often.[65]

Nigerian opposition leader Buba Galadima says: "What is really a group engaged in class warfare is being portrayed in government propaganda as terrorists in order to win counter-terrorism assistance from the West."[66]

Human rights[]

Main article: Human rights in Nigeria

The conflict has seen numerous human rights abuses conducted by the Nigerian security forces, in an effort to control the violence, [67] as well as their encouragement of the formation of numerous vigilante groups (for example, the Civilian Joint Task Force).

Amnesty International has accused the Nigerian government of human rights abuses after 950 suspected Boko Harām militants died in detention facilities run by Nigeria's military Joint Task Force in the first half of 2013.[68] Furthermore, the Nigerian government has been accused of incompetence and supplying misinformation about events in more remote areas.

Boko Haram often engages in kidnapping young girls for use as cooks, sexual slaves or in forced marriage;[69] the most famous example being the Chibok kidnapping in 2014. In addition to kidnapping child brides, Human Rights Watch states that Boko Harām uses child soldiers, including 12-year-olds.[70] The group has forcibly converted non-Muslims to Islam,[71] and is also known to assign non-Kanuris on suicide missions.[72]

International context[]

Main article: Global War on Terrorism

The insurgence can be seen in the context of other conflicts nearby, for example in the North of Mali. The Boko Harām leadership has international connections to Al-Qa'ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), Al-Qa'ida core, Al-Shabab, the Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa (MUJAO), Mokhtar Belmokhtar’s factions, and other militant groups outside Nigeria.[73] In 2014, Nigerian President, Goodluck Jonathan even went so far as calling Boko Harām "al-Qaeda in West Africa".[74] Attacks by Nigerian Islamist militias on targets beyond Nigeria’s borders have so far been limited (as of 2012),[75] and should not be confused with the activities of other groups (for example, the responsibility of AQIM for most attacks in Niger). Despite this, there are concerns that conflict could spread to Nigeria’s neighbours, especially Cameroon, where it existed at a relatively low level until 2014, subsequently escalating considerably. It should also be noted there are combatants from neighboring Chad and Niger.[76]

On 17 May 2014, the presidents of Benin, Chad, Cameroon, Nigeria and Niger met for a summit in Paris and agreed to combat Boko Harām on a coordinated basis, sharing in particular surveillance and intelligence gathering. Goodluck Jonathan[77] and Chadian counterpart, Idriss Deby[3] have both declared total war on Boko Harām. Western nations, including Britain, France, Israel, and the United States had also pledged support including technical expertise and training.[78][79]

See also[]

References[]

  1. ↑ Faced with Boko Haram, Cameroon weighs death penalty for terrorism. By Tansa Musa, Reuters. YAOUNDE Wed Dec 3, 2014 9:56am EST.
  2. ↑ Chad armoured column heads for Cameroon to fight Boko Haram. AFP for Yahoo! News, January 16, 2015 4:54 PM.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 West Africa leaders vow to wage 'total war' on Boko Haram By John Irish and Elizabeth Pineau. 17 May 2014 2:19 PM.
  4. ↑ "Vigilantes Settle Local Scores With Boko Haram". Voice of America. 15 February 2015. http://www.voanews.com/media/video/vigilantes-settle-local-scores-with-boko-haram/2644375.html. Retrieved 15 February 2015. 
  5. ↑ Gryboski, Michael. "US Offers to Help Find Over 200 Nigerian Schoolgirls Abducted by Boko Haram". Christian Post. http://www.christianpost.com/news/us-offers-to-help-find-over-200-nigerian-schoolgirls-abducted-by-boko-haram-118994/. Retrieved 3 May 2014. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Kidnapped schoolgirls: British experts to fly to Nigeria 'as soon as possible'. theguardian.com, Wednesday 7 May 2014 17.33 BST.
  7. ↑ "British troops to help fight against Boko Haram as SAS target Isil". the Telegraph. 20 December 2014. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/defence/11306242/British-troops-to-help-fight-against-Boko-Haram-as-SAS-target-Isil.html. 
  8. ↑ Canada joins effort to free Nigerian schoolgirls. May 14, 2014 3:23 pm Updated: May 15, 2014 7:01 pm. By Murray Brewster, The Canadian Press
  9. ↑ Iran ready to help Nigeria over abducted girls: Diplomat. Monday 19 May, 201404:53 PM GMT.
  10. ↑ Israel sends experts to help hunt for Nigerian schoolgirls kidnapped by Islamists. Jerusalem Post; 05/20/2014 18:03.
  11. ↑ Sudarsan Raghavan (31 May 2013). "Nigerian Islamist militants return from Mali with weapons, skills". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/nigerian-islamist-militants-return-from-mali-with-weapons-skills/2013/05/31/d377579e-c628-11e2-9cd9-3b9a22a4000a_story.html. Retrieved 29 December 2014. 
  12. ↑ Steve White (13 March 2013). "Nigerian hostage deaths: British hostage executed in error". Daily Mirror. http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/nigerian-hostage-deaths-british-hostage-1754571. Retrieved 29 December 2014. 
  13. ↑ http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/terrorism-security/2015/0213/Boko-Haram-escalates-battle-with-bold-move-into-Chad
  14. ↑ "Nigeria: Boko Haram Resurrects, Declares Total Jihad". allAfrica. http://allafrica.com/stories/200908140646.html. 
  15. ↑ "How Big Is Boko Haram?". 2 February 2015. https://medium.com/war-is-boring/how-big-is-boko-haram-fac21c25807. Retrieved 2 February 2015. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 John Campbell. "Nigeria Security Tracker". http://www.cfr.org/nigeria/nigeria-security-tracker/p29483. Retrieved 9 January 2014. 
  17. ↑ "ACLED Version 5 (1997–2014)". Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project. http://www.acleddata.com/data/version-5-data-1997-2014/. Retrieved 13 January 2015. 
  18. ↑ "The Boko Haram insurgency, by the numbers". The Washington Post. 6 October 2014. http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2014/10/06/the-boko-haram-insurgency-by-the-numbers/.  "Since July 2009, when the Boko Haram conflict escalated, at least 11,100 people have died on all sides of the insurgency."
  19. ↑ "Have over 13,000 people been killed in Nigeria’s insurgency? The claim is broadly correct". Africa Check. 14 October 2014. http://africacheck.org/reports/have-13000-people-been-killed-in-nigerias-insurgency-the-claim-is-broadly-correct/.  "The available data suggests that as few 9,000 and as many as 17,500 people have died in the insurgency. The latter figure includes killings by both Boko Haram and the Nigerian military."
  20. ↑ More than 100 Boko Haram fighters killed after first attack on Niger
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Adama Nossiter (27 July 2009). "Scores Die as Fighters Battle Nigerian Police". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/28/world/africa/28nigeria.html?_r=0. Retrieved 29 December 2014. 
  22. ↑ "Boko Haram's four-year reign of terror". Channel 4 News. 8 May 2014. http://www.channel4.com/news/boko-haram-nigeria-schoolgirls-kidnapping-killed-graphic. Retrieved 2 June 2014. 
  23. ↑ "Boko Haram's Bloodiest Year Yet: Over 9,000 Killed, 1.5 Million Displaced, 800 Schools Destroyed in 2014". Christian Post. http://www.christianpost.com/news/boko-harams-bloodiest-year-yet-over-9000-killed-1-5-million-displaced-800-schools-destroyed-in-2014-131864/. Retrieved 10 January 2015. 
  24. ↑ Monica Mark. "Thousands flee as Boko Haram seizes military base on Nigeria border". the Guardian. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/05/boko-haram-key-military-base-nigeria-chad-border. Retrieved 10 January 2015. 
  25. ↑ Meredith, Martin. "11. A House Divided". The State of Africa: A History of Fifty Years of Independence. The Free Press. p. 197. 
  26. ↑ Holman, Michael (24 February 1986) "Nigeria, Politics; Religious Differences Intensify", Financial Times,
  27. ↑ Ostien & Dekker, 575 (25)
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Jonah, Adamu and Igboeroteonwu, Anamesere (20 May 2014). "Nigerian Sharia architect defends law". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1885052.stm. Retrieved 7 June 2014. 
  29. ↑ Olawale, Abdul-Gafar. "Course Lecture: Muslim Groups in Nigeria". Unilorin. https://www.unilorin.edu.ng/courseware/religion/RIS%20128.pdf. Retrieved 7 June 2014. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 "Nigeria: First Execution under Sharia Condemned". Human Rights Watch. 8 January 2002. http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2002/01/08/nigeria-first-execution-under-sharia-condemned. Retrieved 7 June 2014. 
  31. ↑ "Nigeria: International Religious Freedom Report 2008". U.S. Department of State. 2008. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108385.htm. Retrieved 2 August 2009. 
  32. ↑ Amnesty International. Report on Saudi Arabia 2007.[dead link] Archived from the original.
  33. ↑ Amnesty International. Amnesty International Report on Saudi Arabia 2009.[dead link] Archived from the original.
  34. ↑ Nigeria: Recent reports regarding the treatment of persons who convert from Islam to Christianity. Recent reports on Sharia law in relation to religious conversion, Ireland: Refugee Documentation Centre, 26 June 2012, Q15539; available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/50068bbf2.html [accessed 18 July 2014].
  35. ↑ "Religious Demographic Profile: Nigeria". The Pew Forum, 2010.[dead link] . Copied archive from original, (archive dated 21 Apr 2010).
  36. ↑ In the News: The Nigerian Census, Robert Lalasz. (April 2006)
  37. ↑ The Nigeria 2006 Census. Thursday, 5 January 2006.
  38. ↑ Cook, David (2011-09-26). "The Rise of Boko Haram in Nigeria". Combating Terrorism Centre. http://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/the-rise-of-boko-haram-in-nigeria. Retrieved 2012-01-12. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "Nigeria accused of ignoring sect warnings before wave of killings". London. 2009-08-02. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/aug/02/nigeria-boko-haram-islamist-sect. Retrieved 2009-08-06. 
  40. ↑ "Nigerian Islamist attacks spread". BBC. 2009-07-27. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8169966.stm. Retrieved 2009-07-27. 
  41. ↑ "Over 100 dead in Nigerian clashes". RTÉ. 2009-07-27. http://www.rte.ie/news/2009/0727/nigeria.html. Retrieved 2009-07-27. 
  42. ↑ Nigeria killings caught on video – Africa – Al Jazeera English
  43. ↑ Bartolotta, Christopher (19 September 2011). "Terrorism in Nigeria: the Rise of Boko Haram". The World Policy Institute. http://www.worldpolicy.org/blog/2011/09/19/terrorism-nigeria-rise-boko-haram. Retrieved 22 January 2012. 
  44. ↑ Boko Haram strikes again in Borno, kills 4.[dead link] Nigerian Tribune, Thursday, 20 January 2011. Archived from the original.
  45. ↑ Brock, Joe (2012-01-12). "Nigeria sect leader defends killings in video". Reuters Africa. Thomson Reuters. http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE80B01D20120112. Retrieved 2012-01-24. 
  46. ↑ Jacinto, Leela (2012-01-13). "The Boko Haram terror chief who came back from the dead". France 24. http://www.france24.com/en/20120111-terror-chief-boko-haram-imam-shekau-youtube-nigeria-goodluck-jonathan-al-qaeda-oil. Retrieved 2012-01-24. 
  47. ↑ Adam Nossiter (25 February 2012). "In Nigeria, a Deadly Group’s Rage Has Local Roots". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/26/world/africa/in-northern-nigeria-boko-haram-stirs-fear-and-sympathy.html. Retrieved 29 December 2014. 
  48. ↑ "'Civilians among dead in Nigeria offensive'". Al Jazeera. 31 May 2013. http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/05/2013531142139248993.html. 
  49. ↑ Clashes between Nigerian army, Boko Haram kill 35. Reuters. Retrieved on 2013-08-14.
  50. ↑ Maclean, Ruth (3 May 2014) Nigerian school says 329 girl pupils missing The Times, (the online version may need a subscription), Retrieved 10 May 2014
  51. ↑ "Boko Haram Militants abduct 100+ Teenage Girls in Nigeria". IANS. news.biharprabha.com. http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/04/boko-haram-militants-abduct-100-teenage-girls-in-nigeria/. Retrieved 15 April 2014. 
  52. ↑ Collins, Matt (9 May 2014) #BringBackOurGirls: the power of a social media campaign The Guardian, Retrieved 11 May 2014
  53. ↑ "2 explosions hit bus station in central Nigeria city". Fox News. 20 May 2014. http://www.foxnews.com/world/2014/05/20/2-explosions-hit-bus-station-in-central-nigeria-city/. Retrieved 20 May 2014. 
  54. ↑ "Nigeria violence: 'Boko Haram' kill 27 in village attacks". BBC. BBC. 21 May 2014. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-27498598. Retrieved 21 May 2014. 
  55. ↑ Jonah, Adamu and Igboeroteonwu, Anamesere (20 May 2014). "Bombings kill at least 118 in Nigerian city of Jos". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/20/us-nigeria-violence-idUSBREA4J0QL20140520. Retrieved 21 May 2014. 
  56. ↑ Kevin Shillington (2005). Encyclopedia of African History. Michigan University Press. p. 1401. ISBN 1-57958-455-1
  57. ↑ "The end of slavery". The Story of Africa. BBC News. http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page56.shtml. Retrieved 28 May 2011. 
  58. ↑ Garba, Safiya J., "The Impact of Colonialism on Nigerian Education and the Need for E-Learning Technique for Sustainable Development", Journal of Education and Social Research, MCSER-Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research (Rome; Vol. 2 (7) October 2012); p. 56 (ISSN 2239-978X); Accessed 3 Jun 2014 at <http://www.mcser.org/images/stories/JESR-Special-Issues/JESR%202012%20Special%20Issue%20vol%202%20no%207/Safiya%20J%20Garba.pdf>
  59. ↑ Dr. Aliyu U. Tilde. "An in-house Survey into the Cultural Origins of Boko Haram Movement in Nigeria". Discourse 261, MONDAY DISCOURSE WITH DR. ALIYU U. TILDE. Retrieved 24 July 2014.
  60. ↑ Will Ross. "Nigeria schools walk line between Islamic and Western traditions". Kano, Nigeria; 2 June 2014. Last updated at 00:06 GMT. BBC News online.
  61. ↑ "The Etymology of Hausa 'boko'." Paul Newman, 2013. Mega-Chad Research Network / Réseau Méga-Tchad.
  62. ↑ Ijeaku, N.J.O. (2009). The Igbo and Their Niger Delta Neighbors: We Are No Second Fools. Xlibris Corporation. pp. 82–83. ISBN 9781462808618. 
  63. ↑ Martin Meredith (2011). "5. Winds of Change". The State of Africa: A History of the Continent Since Independence (illustrated ed.). Simon and Schuster. p. 77. ISBN 9780857203892. 
  64. ↑ Nigeria: A nation divided. Chart 4: Literacy. BBC World News website, 11 January 2012; accesed 5 July 2014.
  65. ↑ Chris Kwaja (July 2011). "Nigeria’s Pernicious Drivers of Ethno-Religious Conflict". Africa Center for Strategic Studies. Archived from the original on 2013-03-03. http://web.archive.org/web/20130303230823/http://www.ndu.edu/press/lib/pdf/Africa-Security-Brief/ASB-14.pdf. 
  66. ↑ "Boko Haram's Rise in Nigeria Sparks Civil War Fears". Voanews.com. 2012-01-21. http://www.voanews.com/content/boko-harams-rise-in-nigeria-sparks-civil-war-fears-137850723/150975.html. Retrieved 2013-07-06. 
  67. ↑ Nigeria - report - Civilians killed in Nigerian military's fight with Boko Haram, claim rights groups. By Rosie Collyer. Wednesday 23 November 2011. Latest update: Thursday 24 November 2011.
  68. ↑ "Nigeria: Deaths of hundreds of Boko Haram suspects in custody requires investigation". Amnesty International. 15 Oct 2013. https://www.amnesty.org/en/news/nigeria-deaths-hundreds-boko-haram-suspects-custody-requires-investigation-2013-10-15. Retrieved 2014-05-05. 
  69. ↑ Group asks Nigerian government to rescue 20 ‘kidnapped’ female students in Borno. Premium Times Nigeria; published 27 February 2014.
  70. ↑ "Nigeria's Boko Haram 'uses child soldiers' – Africa". English. Al Jazeera. 29 Nov 2013. http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/11/nigeria-boko-haram-uses-child-soldiers-201311291435525502.html. Retrieved 2014-05-05. 
  71. ↑ "Nigeria – reports of forced conversion and marriage of Christians by Boko Haram | Africa - News and Analysis". Africajournalismtheworld.com. 2013-11-17. http://africajournalismtheworld.com/2013/11/17/nigeria-reports-of-forced-conversion-and-marriage-of-christians-by-boko-haram/. Retrieved 2014-05-05. 
  72. ↑ "Genesis, Training And Changing Tactics Of Boko Haram Revealed". 29 January 1970. http://talkofnaija.com/news_details.aspx?NewsId=E0796209-C035-41CD-8195-40888ACA709B. [dead link]
  73. ↑ "UN committee imposes sanctions on Nigeria's Boko Haram". BBC News online, 23 May 2014. Last updated at 15:59 GMT.
  74. ↑ 23 May 2014 at 04:05pm (2014-05-23). "West’s help fuels Boko Haram’s jihad - The Star". IOL.co.za. http://www.iol.co.za/the-star/west-s-help-fuels-boko-haram-s-jihad-1.1693066#.U44U7zBxRX8. Retrieved 2014-06-04. 
  75. ↑ Walker, Andrew (June 2012). "What is Boko Haram?" (PDF). US Institute of Peace. Retrieved 2 October 2013.
  76. ↑ Captives freed in Nigerian city, BBC News online, 2009-Jul-29.
  77. ↑ Jonathan declares "total war" on Boko Haram | Kuramo News, 30 May 2014.
  78. ↑ "Boko Haram to be fought on all sides". Nigerian News.Net. Retrieved 18 May 2014.
  79. ↑ Boko Haram and the Future of Nigeria, by Dr. Jacques Neriah Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs.

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